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S.G.WILSON,M.A 


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N. 


PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2011  with  funding  from 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


http://www.archive.org/details/persianlifecuOOwils 


Thi-.  Shah  oh  Persia. 


-      \a 

PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  ^^^^ 
CUSTOMS 


WITH  SCENES  AND  INCIDENTS  OF  RESIDENCE  AND 

TRAVEL  IN  THE  LAND  OF  THE  LION 

AND  THE  SUN 


BY   THE 

REV.  S.  G.AviLSON,  M.  A. 

FIFTEEN  YEARS  A  MISSIONARY  IN  PERSIA 


Mitb  /IDap  anb  IFUustratfons 


FLEMING   H.  REVELL  COMPANY 

New  York  Chicago  Toronto 

1895 


Copyright,  1895, 
by 

Fleming  H.  Revell  Company. 


CONTENTS 


PAGH 

Introduction 9 

CHAPTER  I 
Coasting  the  Black  Sea 17 

CHAPTER   II 
Georgia  and  Ararat 31 

CHAPTER    III 
Tabriz,  the  Metropolis 52 

CHAPTER   IV 
Maragha,  the  Seat  of  the  Mongols 71 

CHAPTER   V 
A  Circuit  of  Lake  Urumia 81 

CHAPTER  VI 
The  Kurdish  Raid 109 

CHAPTER  VII 
Mountain  Armenians  and  Nomads 125 

CHAPTER  VIII 
Teheran,  the  Capital 138 

CHAPTER   IX 
Hamadan,  and  Takht-i-Suleiman 156 

CHAPTER   X 
The  Condition  and  Needs  of  Persia 164 

5 


6  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XI 

PAGE 

The  Sacred  Year  of  the  Shiahs 189 

CHAPTER   XII 
Religious  Life  and  Morals 202 

CHAPTER  XIII 
Among  the  Ali-Allahis 234 

CHAPTER   XIV 
Social  and  Family  Life 243 

CHAPTER   XV 
Village  Life '. 268 

CHAPTER  XVI 
Business  Life 278 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Modern  Missions  in  Persia 298 

Appendix  I. — History  of  Tabriz 323 

Appendix  II. — Calendar  of  the  Persian  Year 326 

Appendix  III. — Monetary  System,  and  Table  of  Weights 

and  Measures 327 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  Shah  of  Persia Frontispiece 

Types  Seen  in  the  Caucasus Facing  page    48 


A  Nobleman  and  his  Retainers. 

Persian  Telegram 

The  Bastinado 

House  Decorations 

Persian  Girl 

Mission  School,  Tabriz 


68 

174 
186 
248 
266 
306 


Map Following  page  333 


PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 


INTRODUCTION 


THE  pleasing  satire,  "The  Last  Mekrikan,"  pictures  the 
arrival  in  America,  in  the  year  2990,  of  Professor  Noz- 
yt-al,  of  the  University  of  Ispahan,  in  company  with  the  cu- 
rator of  the  Royal  Museum  of  Teheran.  At  that  time  art  and 
science  are  supposed  to  be  flourishing  in  those  ancient  cities. 
The  voyage  of  the  wanderers  brought  them  to  an  unknown  har- 
bor, where,  amid  uninhabited  ruins  and  the  debris  of  a  mighty 
past,  the  archaeologists  discover  inscriptions  which  reveal  the 
site  as  that  of  the  once  famous  New  York.  Penetrating  to 
the  interior  of  the  country,  they  enter  a  building  whose  splen- 
did dome  and  grand  pillars,  even  though  dilapidated,  tell  of 
its  former  magnificence.  Protruding  over  the  railing  of  the 
rotunda  a  pair  of  boots  comes  into  view,  a  sign  of  the  pres- 
ence of  a  man — the  last  inhabitant  of  the  vast  continent — who 
defends  himself  with  shoulder-strokes  so  straight  and  powerful 
as  to  fell  the  astonished  Persians.  Thus  habit  and  custom  per- 
sist even  to  the  latest  generation.  According  to  this  accepted 
principle  a  present-day  wanderer  amid  the  ruins  of  the  pal- 
aces of  Darius  and  Xerxes,  and  their  cuneiform  inscriptions  of 
twenty-five  centuries  ago,  thinks  that  he  is  observing  the  same 


10  INTRODUCTION 

life  and  customs  as  those  described  by  Herodotus  and  Xeno- 
phon.  His  supposition  has  a  considerable  element  of  error  in 
it,  for  Oriental  customs,  though  in  great  degree  immutable,  are 
no  more  unalterable  than  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians, 
Further  modifications  are  continually  taking  place.  The  Per- 
sians are  not  averse  to  change.  The  tea-drinking  habit,  now 
almost  universal,  is  an  introduction  of  the  present  century. 
Ballet-dancer  skirts  have  superseded  the  long  full  ones  which 
were  depicted  in  art  a  few  decades  ago  as  the  indoor  costume 
of  the  women.  The  tall  kula  or  rimless  hat  of  lambskin  has 
undergone  various  modifications  in  style  and  material.  The 
official  and  largely  the  mercantile  classes  have  abandoned 
their  long  flowing  robes  and  multifold  girdle  for  a  frock-coat 
and  leather  belt.  The  short  roundabout  tunic  of  the  Austrian 
uniform  is  worn  by  military  officers,  though  some  don  it  with 
reluctance,  regarding  it  as  immodestly  exposing  the  manly 
form.  The  long  beards  of  a  former  generation,  which  followed 
the  fashion  set  by  Fath  Ali  Shah,  are,  in  accordance  with  pres- 
ent royal  example,  reduced  to  mustaches. 

Persian  customs  are  not  only  not  stereotyped,  they  are  not 
even  uniform  in  different  parts  of  the  country  or  even  of  the 
same  province.  It  is  constantly  necessary  to  guard  against 
sweeping  statements,  and  one  finds  the  use  of  limiting  phrases, 
which  are  required  for  accuracy,  a  hindrance  to  the  succinct 
expression  of  main  facts. 

Great  interest  continues  to  be  taken  in  Persia  as  an  historic 
land,  even  though  it  does  not  occupy  as  large  a  space  in  the 
pubhc  view  as  do  some  other  countries  of  Asia.  The  glimpses 
of  Persian  life,  as  seen  in  the  Greek  classics  and  Holy  Writ, 
have  given  the  country  a  definite  place  in  the  mind  of  the  Chris- 
tian public.  Cyrus  and  Daniel,  Esther  and  Alexander,  are  liv- 
ing characters  to  many  people.  To  a  more  limited  number  the 
Zoroastrian  faith  and  the  fire-altars  of  Persia,  its  mystic  sufism, 
its  portrayal  in  the  "Arabian  Nights,"  the  fame  of  its  poets, 


INTRODUCTION  11 

Fardusi,  Hafiz,  and  Saadi,  its  loyalty  to  and  heroic  struggle  for 
the  house  of  Ali,  are  deeply  attractive,  and  prepare  the  mod- 
ern reader  for  an  acquaintance  with  the  Persia  of  to-day. 

Increased  attention  was  directed  to  Persia  by  the  reports  of 
the  ambassadors  of  the  East  India  Company  and  of  Napoleon 
in  the  earlier  part  of  this  century.  This  was  augmented  by 
the  work  of  a  corps  of  able  travelers  and  discoverers,  such  as 
Rawlinson,  Morier,  Ker  Porter,  and  Fraser,  and  has  lately  been 
increased  by  the  successive  visits  of  his  Majesty  the  Shah  to 
Europe.  The  relations  between  America  and  Persia,  and  the 
knowledge  of  each  other's  conditions,  are  becoming  more  inti- 
mate. America  is  known  as  the  New  World.  An  American 
traveler  in  Persia  heard  repeatedly  the  phrase  in  Turki,  "  Yanki- 
dun-ya  dan  di"  ("He  is  from  the  New  World  "),  which  he  was 
fond  of  interpreting  as  "  Yankee-Doodle  dandy."  Perhaps 
some  one  may  yet  cite  this  as  a  legitimate  etymology. 

Knowledge  of  America  is  still  very  hmited.  Few  now  refer 
to  it,  however,  as  the  place  where  gold  grows  on  trees,  and 
which  is  inhabited  by  the  descendants  of  Columbus  and  the 
red  men.  It  is  to  them  a  strange  country  without  a  king,  whose 
power  they  have  never  felt  and  scarcely  recognize.  The  shah 
is  said  to  have  asked,  "  How  many  soldiers  have  the  United 
States?  "  When  told  fifty  thousand  he  replied,  "  It  is  not  much 
of  a  country."  General  Upton,  when  on  a  tour  of  the  world, 
knew  better  how  to  impress  his  Majesty.  To  the  same  ques- 
tion he  replied,  "  Ten  million."  The  estabhshment  of  diplo- 
matic relations  between  the  two  countries  is  tending  to  foster 
commerce  and  develop  more  intimate  international  acquain- 
tance. The  Chicago  Exposition  increased  their  knowledge  of 
each  other. 

The  need  in  America  of  information  regarding  Persia  is 
often  shown.  Some  new  arrivals  at  Castle  Garden  were  once 
pelted  with  snowballs  by  street  urchins,  and  complaint  of  this 
was  made.     A  great  newspaper,  in  giving  an  account  of  the 


12  INTRODUCTION 

affray,  remarked,  in  entire  ignorance  of  the  climate  of  Persia, 
that  the  Persians  had  never  seen  this  strange  white  substance, 
and  wondered  what  it  was. 

The  hterature  relating  to  Persia  is  increasing.  Nothing 
along  historical  hnes  has  yet  equaled  the  "  History  of  Persia," 
by  Sir  John  Malcolm.  Markham's  history  is  a  faithful  chron- 
icle from  the  earliest  times.  Watson's  "  History  of  Persia 
under  the  Kajar  Dynasty  "  is  essential  to  a  good  understand- 
ing of  the  present  political  conditions.  An  interesting  episode 
in  recent  Persian  history  is  the  rise,  persecution,  and  progress 
of  Babism.  This  new  religion  is  exhaustively  treated  by  Pro- 
fessor Browne,  of  Oxford,  in  "  The  New  History,"  "  The  Epi- 
sode of  the  Bab,"  and  "  A  Year  in  Persia,"  in  which  he  gives 
their  history  and  doctrinal  tenets  in  such  detail  as  to  leave  little 
to  be  desired.  The  recent  publication  of  these  volumes  makes 
it  unnecessary  here  to  detail  my  experiences  with  this  sect.  A 
volume  on  "  Persian  Literature  "  by  Miss  Reed,  lately  issued 
in  America,  is  an  admirable  popular  treatise  on  this  attractive 
subject.  Translations  of  the  chief  Persian  poets  are  accessible 
in  English.     Some  of  them  have  been  rendered  into  verse. 

Books  of  travel  in  Persia  are  not  lacking  in  number,  chiefly 
by  English  authors.  Some  travelers  seem  to  record  the  length 
of  their  slumbers,  the  time  of  their  arrival  at  a  mefizil,  the  sick- 
ness of  their  horse,  or  their  own  personal  discomforts,  as  more 
important  than  the  life  of  the  people  about  them.  The  most 
exhaustive  treatise  on  the  country,  in  its  geographical,  com- 
mercial, and  political  aspects,  is  "  Persia  and  the  Persian 
Question,"  by  the  Hon.  George  N.  Curzon,  M.P,  Ex-Minister 
S,  G.  W,  Benjamin's  chapters  on  "  Persian  Art "  and  "  The 
Royal  Family,"  in  his  "  Persia  and  the  Persians,"  are  unsurpassed. 
The  volume,  moreover,  has  a  fine  literary  flavor.  Rev.  James 
Bassett,  in  "The  Land  of  the  Imam,"  has  given  specially  accu- 
rate and  detailed  accounts  of  places  along  the  principal  routes 
of  travel.     A  good  work  on  the  social  customs  is  "  The  Land 


INTRODUCTION  13 

of  the  Lion  and  the  Sun,"  by  Dr.  Wills,  of  the  Indo-European 
Telegraph  service,  though  it  has  been  condemned  by  some  as 
inaccurate.  I  presume  no  one,  even  with  the  best  intentions 
in  the  way  of  fidelity  to  truth,  can  avoid  falling  into  errors  in 
treating  of  such  a  country  as  Persia,  or  fail  to  be  misinformed 
by  the  deceitful  Persians. 

The  preparation  for  writing  the  present  volume  was  a  resi- 
dence of  fourteen  years  in  Tabriz,  Persia,  as  a  missionary 
under  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  (American)  Foreign  Missions. 
The  prosecution  of  mission  work  in  its  usual  departments  as 
preacher  and  evangelist,  principal  of  the  Memorial  Training 
and  Theological  School,  mission  treasurer,  superintendent  of 
buildings  and  of  legal  affairs,  has  brought  me  into  contact  with 
Persian  life  and  character  among  those  of  low  and  high  degree 
ahke.  Itinerancies  and  mission  business  have  led  me  to  visit 
many  localities,  and  given  me  wide  opportunities  to  observe 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people.  I  have  read  nearly 
every  work  in  English  on  Persia  and  Mohammedanism,  yet  have 
recorded  for  the  most  part  only  my  own  observations  and  ex- 
periences, and  what  I  have  heard  from  the  people  regarding 
themselves.  My  residence  at  Tabriz  has  been  among  the 
dominant  race  of  Persia,  the  Turkis  or  Tartars,  to  whom  the 
royal  Kajars  belong,  and  who  have  supplanted  the  ancient 
races  in  the  northwest  provinces  as  far  south  as  Teheran  and 
Hamadan.  It  is  one  of  the  ironies  of  fate  that  the  old  con- 
test so  long  waged,  according  to  legend  and  poetry,  between 
Iran  and  Turan  should  end  at  last  in  the  supremacy  of  Turan, 
even  after  the  Iranians  had  regained  their  beloved  land  from 
the  Semitic  Arabs.  The  Hfe  portrayed  here  is  that  modified 
by  the  mixtxure  of  these  races. 

The  present  volume  has  been  a  gradual  growth.  Some 
portions,  in  a  different  form,  were  contributed  to  the  religious 
and  secular  press  and  to  periodicals.  A  furlough  in  America 
has  given  me  the  opportunity  to  arrange  the  notes  of  previous 


14  INTRODUCTION 

years,  and  throw  them  into  permanent  form.  The  work  aims  to 
be  popular  in  its  presentation,  and  is  committed  to  the  pubhc 
with  no  thought  that  it  is  exhaustive.  It  is  hoped  that  it  will 
add  something  to  the  real  knowledge  of  Persian  Hfe,  and  may 
help  in  forming  a  just  estimate  of  an  interesting  people.  The 
early  chapters  are  devoted  to  a  description  of  scenes  and  places 
visited  en  route  to  Persia  and  during  successive  journeys,  with 
their  accompanying  incidents.  \Miere  several  journeys  have 
been  made  over  the  same  ground,  their  attendant  experiences 
have  been  combined  in  one  narrative.  The  succeeding  chap- 
ters describe  the  civil,  rehgious,  social,  domestic,  and  commer- 
cial hfe  of  the  people  in  cities,  \-illages,  and  tents.  The  clos- 
ing chapter  gives,  briefly,  some  of  the  methods  and  the  results 
of  missionary'  work  among  different  races  in  Persia. 

The  volume,  it  is  proper  to  say,  is  not  intended  as  a  direct 
contribution  to  missionary  literature ;  but  I  trust  that  its  expo- 
sition of  the  moral,  intellectual,  and  religious  condition  of  the 
Persians  will  appeal  to  Christian  people  and  quicken  an  in- 
terest in  missions  among  them.  The  cities  and  pro^^nces  de- 
scribed are  those  in  which  mission  work  is  now  carried  on  by 
both  Protestants  and  Catholics. 

Discussion  of  the  political  situation  has  been  avoided, 
partly  because  the  writer's  residence  has  been  in  the  commer- 
cial metropolis,  and  not  in  Teheran,  the  center  of  pohtical  in- 
trigues for  Central  Asia,  and  partly  from  prudential  reasons,  as 
well  as  because  politics  are  a  favorite  theme,  thoroughly  can- 
vassed by  most  wTiters  on  Persia,  and  concerning  which  the 
facts  and  possible  solutions  have  often  been  stated.  All  writ- 
ers seem  to  reach  the  same  conclusion,  namely,  that  the  future 
of  Persia  politically  depends  upon  Russia.  They  regard  it  as 
a  ripe  apple  within  reach  of  that  power  whenever  it  shall  put 
forth  its  hand  to  pluck  it.  As  far  as  has  been  thought  neces- 
sary' this  subject  is  treated  in  the  chapter  on  "  The  Condition 
and  Needs  of  Persia."    Facts  of  geography  and  histor}-  such 


INTRODUCTION  15 

as  may  be  found  in  the  ordinary  encyclopedias  are  generally 
excluded. 

Persia  has  not  yet  awakened  to  a  sense  of  its  need  of  mod- 
ern civilization  or  of  Christian  enlightenment.  Many  of  its 
intelligent  people  recognize  the  backwardness  of  their  countrj^ 
and  would  gladly  welcome  an  era  of  substantial  progress,  the 
opening  up  of  the  country  to  the  advancements  of  the  age,  the 
amelioration  of  the  people,  socially  and  economically,  the  in- 
troduction of  science  and  the  mechanical  arts,  together  with 
a  greater  degree  of  liberty.  The  present  outlook  is  not  favor- 
able to  a  speedy  reception  of  nineteenth-century  ideas  in  the 
way  of  commercial  exploitation,  or  to  any  marked  change  in 
the  religious  beliefs  of  the  people.  Foreign  commercial  enter- 
prises are,  in  an  especial  degree,  in  a  state  of  stagnation,  owing 
to  the  collapse  of  many  projects,  among  which  was  the  tobacco 
monopoly,  whose  overthrow  seemed  to  shake  eA'en  the  throne 
itself.  The  administration  of  the  country  is  weakened  by  the 
antagonism  of  the  priestly  orders.  The  shah,  with  a  progres- 
sive spirit  and  an  earnest  purpose  for  the  advancement  and 
enlightenment  of  his  people,  seems  powerless  to  effect  his  pur- 
pose against  official  corruption  on  the  one  hand  and  the  con- 
servatism of  the  mollas  on  the  other.  But  in  spite  of  murky 
clouds  and  a  sullen  outlook  I  have  hope  with  regard  both  to 
the  future  of  the  people  and  to  the  capabilities  of  the  land. 

Samuel  Graham  Wilson. 


"  The  cultivated  imagination  kindles  at  the  mention  of  Persia.  The 
names  of  Cyrus  and  Darius  and  Xerxes  are  household  words.  Every 
school-boy  has  pored  over  the  narrative  of  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  the 
mighty  hosts  of  Persia ;  but  it  is  difficult  for  one  who  has  not  been  actually 
in  Persia  to  realize  that  the  nation  founded  and  ruled  by  these  sovereigns 
centuries  before  Christ  is  still  a  living  power,  with  a  continuous  vitality 
that  may  preserve  her  national  integrity  for  ages  to  come.  She  had  already 
developed  a  distinct  civilization  and  an  extraordinary  genius  for  political 
organization  before  the  star  of  Rome  had  begun  to  cast  its  rays  above  the 
horizon  of  history.  The  immortal  colonnades  of  Persepolis  were  reared 
before  those  of  the  Parthenon,  and  are  still  the  greatest  rivals  of  the  archi- 
tectural triumphs  of  Greek  civilization.  Although  shorn  of  some  of  her 
vast  territories,  which  with  various  fluctuations  have  at  times  extended 
from  the  Ganges  to  the  Nile,  and  from  the  Don  to  the  Indian  Ocean, 
Persia  is  yet  by  no  means  an  insignificant  power,  with  her  well-defined 
limits  more  than  twice  the  area  of  France ;  while  the  intellectual  vigor  of 
her  people,  after  the  lapse  of  twenty-five  hundred  years,  shows  few  signs 
of  degeneracy." — Ex-Minister  Benjamin's  "  Persia  and  the  Persians." 


l6 


CHAPTER    I 


COASTING   THE    BLACK   SEA 


THE  most  direct  route  to  Persia  is  across  Europe  to 
Odessa,  thence  by  the  Black  Sea  and  Transcaucasia. 
During  oiu*  five  days'  voyage  the  Black  Sea  belied  its  reputa- 
tion. Not  only  did  the  reports  of  rats  holding  high  carnival  at 
night  on  the  steamer,  and  taking  hberties  with  the  passengers' 
ears,  and  the  tales  of  other  unmentionable  discomforts,  find 
no  verification  in  our  experience,  but  the  Euxine  itself  was, 
except  for  a  few  hours,  calm  and  glassy.  On  the  decks 
European  and  Oriental  life  were  strangely  commingled. 
While  the  saloons  bespoke  the  civilization  of  the  West,  the 
lower  deck  was  a  kaleidoscope  of  the  East.  Among  the 
passengers  one  met  the  Russian  general,  with  long  WeUington 
boots  and  glittering  epaulets,  ready  to  converse  in  almost  any 
language ;  the  PoHsh  nobleman,  muttering  his  discontent  over 
fallen  Sarmatia ;  the  dread  Cossack  officer,  strutting  proudly 
about  in  his  long  and  graceful  uniform ;  the  Georgian  prince, 
satisfied  with  promotion  in  the  service  of  the  czar,  in  lieu  of 
the  crown  of  former  days ;  and  the  scion  of  the  Kajars,  a 
refugee  from  Persia,  enjoying  a  liberal  pension  as  the  guest 
of  the  Romanoffs.  Besides  soldiers  of  various  ranks,  there 
were  the  German  merchant,  the  Scotch  exporter  of  lumber, 
the  Swiss  governess  bound  for  Tiflis,  the  Russian  gentleman, 
wrapping  his  big  fur  coat  about  him  and  then  holding  up  his 

17 


18  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

umbrella  to  keep  off  the  sunshine,  and  his  wife,  smoking  her 
cigarette  with  the  unconcern  of  established  custom. 

On  the  lower  deck  was  a  strange  mixture  alike  of  physiog- 
nomies and  dress:  the  Russian  peasants,  cutting  large  slices 
from  a  ten-pound  loaf  of  black  bread ;  the  Georgians,  dipping 
the  sop  from  a  common  di.~h ;  the  Turkish  family,  with  the 
baby  strapped,  papoose-like,  on  the  mother's  back,  puffing  the 
narghile  or  water-pipe ;  Tartars,  Armenians,  Greeks,  Mingre- 
lians,  and  people  of  unknown  name,  with  all  sorts  and  shapes 
of  hats,  lounging  on  their  bags  and  bedding — a  motley  crowd, 
never  lacking  in  novelty  and  interest. 

The  pleasure  of  the  voyage  was  heightened  by  the  calls 
which  the  steamer  made  along  the  coast.  The  first  morning 
(a  Wednesday  in  October,  1880)  we  and  our  party*  entered 
the  Bay  of  Sebastopol,  famous  in  the  history  of  the  Crimean  War. 
No  one  point  presents  the  city  in  full  view.  Stretching  over  the 
hills,  it  so  nestles  between  the  trees  and  in  the  slopes  of  the 
town  that  at  a  little  distance  it  is  almost  invisible.  Two  large 
forts  frown  upon  the  left,  ready  to  pour  forth  fire  and  desola- 
tion. A  large  crumbling  inclosiue  seen  from  the  steamer,  with 
high  walls  and  three  rows  of  empty  windows,  is  the  ruin  of 
extensive  barracks.  The  walls  and  mounds  of  earth  stretch- 
ing far  away  are  in  an  equally  dilapidated  condition.  The 
different  groupings  of  white  stone  buildings  with  red  roofs, 
the  dome  of  the  new  Russian  church,  the  palace  and  Grand 
Hotel,  the  fine  flight  of  stone  steps,  flanked  by  crouching 
lions,  reaching  down  to  the  landing,  attracted  attention.  At 
the  wharf  there  was  an  opportunity  to  go  ashore  and  visit  the 
War  Museum,  which  has  many  relics  of  the  memorable  con- 
flict in  the  fifties.  Great  amusement  was  afforded  by  the 
naked  urchins  who  came  alongside  the  ship  to  dive  for  co- 
pecks.    The  passenger  throws  a  shining  coin  into  the  water ; 

*  Our  party  consisted  of  the  Misses  Mary  Jewett,  Mary  A.  Clarke,  and 
Agnes  Carey,  the  Rev.  James  W.  Hawkes,  and  the  writer. 


COASTING    THE  BLACK  SEA  19 

down  dives  the  boy,  and  in  a  few  seconds  comes  up  with  it  in 
his  hand.  The  Muscovite  gamin  then  throws  the  coin  into 
his  mouth,  and  continues  the  sport  until  that  purse  would  seem 
unable  to  hold  any  more.  As  we  steamed  out  of  the  harbor, 
its  size  and  security  were  specially  observable. 

We  next  rounded  the  Crimean  peninsula,  the  Chersonesus, 
associated  with  ancient  colonization  and  modern  warfare. 
Balaclava  called  to  mind  "  the  charge  of  the  Light  Brigade." 
The  Crimea  is  a  great  resort  for  wealthy  Russians.  Yalta 
rivals  Bath  or  Newport.  It  is  beautiful  for  situation,  and  the 
hour  spent  in  strolling  past  its  handsome  residences  and  in 
examining  the  shells  collected  from  its  beach  was  delightful. 
Near  by  is  Livadia,  the  country-seat  of  the  czar,  and  Orianda, 
the  property  of  the  Grand  Duke  Constantine,  with  other 
charming  villas.  The  palace  of  Livadia,  among  the  trees  on 
the  sloping  mountain-side,  is  now  memorable  as  the  scene  of 
the  death  of  Alexander  III.  Theodosia,  our  next  stopping- 
place,  led  us  back  to  the  days  of  Greek  prowess  and  of  the 
Genoese  navigators.  We  stood  off  here  during  the  night  un- 
loading cargo  into  small  boats  which  came  alongside  for  it. 
Much  grain,  wine,  and  raisins  are  exported  from  the  hill-coun- 
try beyond. 

Thursday  morning  we  passed  into  the  Strait  of  Yenikale, 
connecting  with  the  Sea  of  Azof,  which  is  yearly  becoming 
shallower,  owing  to  the  deposits  of  the  Don  and  to  the  ballast 
thrown  from  steamers.  At  noon  we  anchored  at  Kertch,  the 
harbor  not  yet  being  frozen  over.  This  is  the  ancient  Greek 
Panticapeum,  where  the  great  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus, 
driven  from  Asia  Minor  by  Pompey,  established  his  power  for 
a  brief  time,  and  whence  he  planned  to  unite  all  the  Sarmatian 
tribes  for  a  descent  on  Italy.  The  steamer  stopped  here  for 
some  hours,  and  we  had  time  to  climb  the  Hill  of  Mithridates, 
which  rises  back  of  the  town  to  the  height  of  three  hundred 
feet.    Its  sides  are  covered  with  pieces  of  old  pottery,  some  of 


20  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

it  said  to  belong  to  the  best  age  of  Grecian  fictile  art.  Most 
of  the  better  specimens  have  been  transferred  to  the  museum 
at  St.  Petersburg,  and  some  are  collected  in  the  city  museum ; 
but  many  curious  relics  can  yet  be  picked  up,  even  of  the  more 
valuable  colored  ware.  Passing  through  an  arched  gateway, 
the  ascent  is  by  a  broad  flight  of  steps  of  uncertain  age.  They 
look  old,  and  have  had  very  little  repairing  ;  but  the  critics  are 
certainly  right  in  refusing  to  credit  the  tradition  that  they  are 
the  remains  of  a  palace  of  Mithridates.  We  seated  ourselves 
on  the  topmost  rock,  covered  with  dry,  yellow  moss,  some  of 
it  almost  petrified  with  age.  On  the  brow  of  the  hill  is  a  her- 
mitage of  monks.  Encircling  it,  at  some  distance  down,  are 
the  remains  of  earthworks,  forming  a  circumvallation,  and 
higher  up  a  concentric  circle,  so  perfectly  preserved  that  it 
would  still  serve  the  purpose  of  breastworks.  Here  Mithri- 
dates, two  thousand  years  ago,  forsaken  by  his  near  followers, 
and  driven  to  despair,  ended  his  life.  Directly  in  front,  and 
overlooking  the  city,  is  a  tomb  of  white  stone,  surmounted 
by  a  wooden  cross,  and  covered  with  the  names  of  those  who 
must  in  some  fashion  make  their  mark  in  the  world.  This  is 
said  to  be  the  tomb  of  the  king ;  but  history  records  that  he 
was  entombed  with  high  military  honors  by  Pompey  at  Sinope. 
The  investigators  who  broke  open  the  tomb  found  that  noth- 
ing had  been  left  by  the  vandals  who  had  preceded  them. 

From  the  summit  there  is  a  splendid  view  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  Below  lies  the  city,  for  the  most  part  quiet  and 
silent,  like  a  country  town,  the  activity  and  business  of  the  open 
square  being  in  strong  contrast ;  while  the  scores  of  ships  and 
small  craft  which  dot  the  bay  show  its  high  commercial  stand- 
ing. The  hill-range  beyond,  sloping  to  the  sea  in  a  gradual 
descent,  reaches  to  the  boundary  of  Europe  ;  and  in  dim  outline 
through  the  haze  was  discernible  the  low  coast-line  of  Asia, 
the  first  extended  view  we  had  of  that  vast  continent. 

We  paid  for  our  excursion  by  unfortunately  missing  our 


COASTING    THE  BLACK  SEA  21 

dinner.  Our  discomfort  was  increased  by  the  sea  becoming 
slightly  boisterous,  causing  the  vessel  to  toss  and  reel,  and  by 
a  drizzle  driving  us  in  from  the  deck.  This  change  in  the 
state  of  affairs  made  an  early  exit  to  the  deck  on  Friday 
morning  very  convenient,  and  thus  gave  us  a  view  of  Novoro- 
shisk.  The  lower  deck  now  presented  a  sorry  spectacle.  The 
third-class  passengers  were  huddled  together  in  great  disarray, 
curled  up  indiscriminately  with  bags  and  bundles.  Every  now 
and  then  a  wave  would  come  dashing  up,  giving  them  a  full 
immersion. 

Novoroshisk,  at  the  time  of  our  visit,  we  found  had  an  oil 
boom.  A  one-thousand-barrel  well  was  owned  by  an  Ameri- 
can. Its  boom  has  since  somewhat  collapsed ;  but  the  town 
has  developed,  with  the  swiftness  of  an  American  city,  into  a 
thriving  commercial  center.  It  is,  moreover,  a  railway  ter- 
minus. Splendid  wharves  and  fortifications  are  being  erected, 
and  every  sign  of  prosperity  is  now  visible. 

All  of  the  next  day  we  skirted  the  now  desolate  Abkasian 
coast,  covered  with  low  forests  and  a  thick  undergrowth  of 
brambles.  From  the  forests  considerable  ash,  oak,  walnut, 
and  boxwood  timber  is  exported.  The  land  is  fertile  and 
very  productive,  and  before  the  Russian  conquest  was  thickly 
populated.  After  the  subjugation  of  the  various  tribes  of  the 
Cherkess  or  Circassians  in  1 864,  four  hundred  thousand  of  the 
inhabitants,  prompted  by  religious  fanaticism  and  a  laudable 
spirit  of  liberty,  expatriated  themselves  and  took  refuge  with 
their  co-religionists  of  Turkey. 

Along  this  coast  are  at  least  a  dozen  forts,  while  towns  are 
also  gradually  being  built.  One  of  these  we  noticed  growing 
up  around  the  monastery  of  New  Athos.  It  is  near  the  ruins 
of  a  Genoese  fort,  on  a  wild  tract  of  forest  given  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  a  colony  of  three  hundred  monks.  It  is  already 
taking  on  the  appearance  of  civilization,  for  an  ancient  Byzan- 
tine church  has  been  repaired  and  put  to  use ;  while  around  it 


22  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

and  the  monastery  fruitful  fields  and  vineyards  are  being  cul- 
tivated.   An  extensive  hospice  for  pilgrims  has  been  erected.* 

Passing  on,  we  caught  a  glimpse  of  the  snow-cap  of  Elburz 
at  a  considerable  distance  inland,  stopped  at  Sukum  Kala,  and 
arrived  off  Poti  on  Saturday  afternoon.  Here  we  were  trans- 
ferred to  a  flat-bottomed  steamer  so  as  to  cross  the  bar.  The 
channel  is  very  shallow,  and  sometimes  fills  up  within  three 
feet  of  the  surface,  delaying  ships  at  anchor  outside  or  captive 
within,  for  several  months  at  a  time.  Miserable  as  the  harbor 
is,  it  was  at  that  time  the  port  for  the  trade  of  the  Caucasus 
and  for  many  of  the  exportations  of  Persia. 

In  our  flat-bottom  we  steamed  into  the  river  Rion  or  Phasis, 
following  the  course  of  Jason  and  his  followers  when  they  went 
in  search  of  the  golden  fleece.  We  landed  not  at  all  pleased 
with  the  prospect  of  spending  Sunday  in  that  unpromising  and 
unhealthy  place. 

When  a  cook  went  to  make  her  engagement  she  laid  down 
as  a  condition  that  she  should  have  the  F's.  The  lady  inquired 
what  these  were,  and  was  told,  "  Why,  fat,  fur,  and  feather,  of 
course."  So  when  we  stopped  at  Poti  we  supposed  we  should 
enjoy  "  the  F's  of  Poti — fleas,  flies,  fevers,  fogs,  frogs,  and 

*  When  we  were  returning  at  Easter  (1894)  a  band  of  pilgrims  came 
out  in  little  boats  rowed  by  the  monks,  and  were  put  on  board.  They 
were  of  the  ignorant  peasantry,  uncouthly  clothed,  with  hoods  over  their 
disheveled  locks,  and  the  dirt  of  the  pilgrimage  clinging  to  them.  It  was 
a  sight  to  see  them  climb  the  ladders  at  the  sides  of  the  boat  and  throw 
themselves,  beds,  bundles,  and  babies,  on  the  lower  deck.  The  monks 
rowed  back  and  forth  until  four  hundred  pilgrims  were  packed  in  as  thick 
as  sardines.  Shortly  afterward  rain  began  to  fall,  and  the  saloon  pas- 
sengers retired  below  to  give  the  protection  of  the  covered  deck  to  this 
motley  crowd  of  men  and  women,  priests  and  nuns.  In  the  morning  a  nun 
passed  around  and  took  up  a  collection.  Among  the  deck-passengers  were 
a  crowd  of  Mingrelian  boys  and  girls  returning  to  school,  whose  songs  in 
their  own  tongue  were  highly  interesting  to  hear.  The  performance  of 
some  strolling  musicians  on  their  native  instruments  with  falsetto  songs 
earned  some  copecks,  which  a  monkey  collected  in  his  miniature  fez. 


COASTING    THE  BLACK  SEA  23 

filth."  These  and  other  advantages  give  it  the  unenviable 
reputation  of  being  one  of  the  worst  places  in  all  civilization, 
in  climaie  and  accommodations  for  travelers.  Not  long  ago 
the  place  was  a  huge  marsh,  and  even  now  the  ground  is  only 
about  one  foot  above  sea-level,  and  liable  to  disaster  from 
floods  by  land  and  storms  by  sea.  When  the  snow-floods 
come  pouring  down  the  rapid  Rion  the  waters  overflow  the 
streets,  and  for  a  time  the  inhabitants  become  amphibious. 
The  ladies  then  don  their  high  boots  with  long  leggings,  and 
their  promenades  undergo  no  interruption.  Most  of  the 
houses  are  one  story,  set  up  on  posts,  allowing  free  course  to 
the  water,  and  affording  good  berths  to  the  millions  of  frogs, 
which,  being  in  such  close  proximity  to  the  bedroom  window, 
offer  abundant  music  without  putting  their  bowstrings  under 
too  great  tension.  The  miasma  which  necessarily  arises  from 
low  lands  under  such  circumstances,  and  from  the  immense 
swamps  in  the  neighborhood,  renders  the  sanitary  condition  bad 
in  the  extreme.  Murray  advises  one  by  no  means  to  pass  the 
night  there,  and  it  is  confidently  affirmed  that  no  European 
has  ever  lodged  there  and  escaped  the  fever.  English  sailors 
are  prohibited  by  government  regulation  from  landing  at  the 
place.  Either  liberal  doses  of  quinine  saved  us,  or  the  slight 
chill  and  fever  which  one  of  our  party  had  three  weeks  after- 
ward proved  the  universality  of  the  rule. 

Happily,  when  we  aiTived,  the  frogs  had  gone  into  winter 
quarters.  If  some  enterprising  Frenchman  wishes  to  branch 
out  in  a  new  line  of  trade  he  might  start  an  establishment  for 
canning  this  delicacy.  There  we  abstained  from  water  and  be- 
came tea-drinkers  or,  like  the  Malokans,  milk-drinkers.  But 
by  no  ingenuity  of  the  traveler  or  change  of  season  can  the 
last  F  on  the  list  be  subdued.  Filth  abounded  more  than 
they  all. 

In  spite  of  these  various  plagues,  real  and  imaginary,  our  stay 
in  Poti  was  quite  comfortable.    The  Hotel  de  Jaquot  afforded 


24  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

passable  accommodation  ;  but  from  the  way  in  which  the  pro- 
prietor sought  the  golden  fleece  it  deserved  the  surname  "  Hotel 
de  Jason." 

Our  stay  was  made  pleasant  by  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Gard- 
ner, H.  B.  M.  consul  at  Poti.  In  finding  the  consul  we  had 
our  first  experience  of  Oriental  hotel  porters.  A  Georgian, 
in  a  long  gray  wrapper-coat,  with  an  air  of  confidence  which 
showed  that  he  understood  the  situation,  took  us  around  by  a 
circuit  of  two  miles,  stopped  at  half  a  dozen  wrong  places, 
and  finally  landed  us  before  the  lion  and  the  unicorn,  just  two 
doors  from  the  hotel  where  we  started.  He  was  the  most 
crestfallen  Oriental  we  have  ever  met,  and  the  only  one  who 
was  in  too  great  haste  to  wait  for  his  bakshish. 

Mr.  Gardner  was  the  only  Englishman  in  Poti.  His  wife 
and  an  aunt  had  been  snatched  from  him  by  the  fever.  Prior 
to  the  late  war  the  departure  of  his  three  children  to  England 
became  necessary ;  yet  there  he  remained,  bound  by  political 
and  financial  interests. 

The  commerce  of  Poti  demanded  that  the  consulates  of 
European  governments  should  be  there.  It  was  the  emporium 
of  an  immense  trade,  reaching  even  to  America.  Regular 
lines  of  steamers  ply  between  it  and  Marseilles,  as  well  as  be- 
tween it  and  Constantinople  and  Odessa.  Hence  went  the 
corn  of  the  Mingrelian  plains  for  the  English  market,  and  box- 
wood and  walnut  from  the  slopes  of  the  Caucasus.  The  lat- 
ter is  said  to  be  of  better  quahty  than  American  walnut,  hard 
enough  to  admit  of  the  finest  pohsh,  and  so  knotted  and 
twisted  that  it  veneers  beautifully.  A  considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  in  Persian  flowers,  from  which  insect-powder  and 
other  drugs  are  made.  Tons  of  these  dried  flowers  are  ex- 
ported. Formerly  they  were  powdered  previous  to  exporta- 
tion ;  but  the  natives  had  become  so  adept  in  adulteration  that 
the  flowers  are  now  shipped  in  an  unprepared  state.  Quan- 
tities of  cotton,  tobacco,  silks,  and  carpets  also  find  exit  through 


COASTING    THE  BLACK  SEA  25 

Poti  via  Tiflis.  The  high  revenue  and  protective  tariff  of 
Russia  now  drives  a  great  deal  of  Persian  trade  to  Trebizond 
via  Erzrum. 

Aside  from  its  commerce,  Poti  has  little  worthy  of  mention. 
The  Botanical  Gardens  are  quite  extensive,  and  tropical  plants 
flourish  luxuriantly  without  the  fostering  nurture  of  the  hot- 
house. This  is  possible  on  account  of  the  mild  character  of 
the  winter.  An  old  Turkish  fort  stands  by  the  seaside,  a  relic 
of  a  time  anterior  to  Russian  occupation.  The  changed  char- 
acter of  the  dress,  the  strange  faces,  the  bazaars,  and  the  pecu- 
liar conveyances  we  saw  about  told  us  that  we  were  in  a  new 
civilization.  We  kept  a  sharp  lookout  for  the  world-renowned 
Georgian  women.  We  were  soon  able  to  look  upon  princes 
and  princesses  with  undazed  vision,  for  they  are  as  numerous 
in  this  region  as  generals  and  colonels  among  American  poli- 
ticians. Many  of  the  women  had  adopted  as  their  Sunday 
dress  the  long  trains  of  their  Western  sisters ;  but,  like  most 
Orientals  when  they  don  European  costume,  they  retain  the 
native  head-dress.  The  bonnet  is  a  kind  of  diadem  of  bright 
color,  adorned  with  tinsel,  or  sometimes  with  gold  and  pre- 
cious stones,  and  covered  with  a  white  veil,  gaily  ornamented, 
hanging  down  at  some  length,  though  not  so  as  to  conceal  the 
features. 

Baron  Thielmann  informed  us  that  Poti  owed  its  prosperity 
to  a  slip  of  the  pen ;  that  when  Turkey  ceded  to  Russia,  by 
the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  the  territory  between  Kars  and  the 
sea,  the  boundary-line  was  drawn  to  run  down  the  river 
Tschorock,  which  would  have  conceded  to  Russia  the  fine 
harbor  of  Batum.  It  was  discovered,  however,  after  the  rati- 
fication of  the  treaty,  that  the  river  Tscholoch,  which  runs 
eighteen  miles  to  the  north  of  Batum,  had  been  inserted  as  the 
boundary-line.  Thus,  in  Heu  of  a  better,  Poti  became  the  port 
for  a  flourishing  trade. 

By  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  Batum  was  transferred  to  Russia, 


26  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

and  soon  after  our  passing  through,  the  railroad  was  com- 
pleted to  Batum ;  so  Poti's  prosperity  and  commerce  were 
transferred  to  the  latter  port.  When  we  returned  we  found 
Batum  a  lively  young  city,  grown  from  two  thousand  to 
twelve  thousand,  with  scarcely  a  mark  of  the  Turk  upon  it. 
Its  paved  streets,  wharves,  improved  harbor,  and  Prospect  Park 
on  the  seaside,  the  bustle  and  activity  of  its  stores,  the  large 
petroleum  refineries  and  export  trade,  all  show  that  it  has 
fallen  into  energetic  hands.  It  is  being  fortified,  contrary  to 
the  treaty  of  Berlin,  and  has  been  declared  a  naval  port,  liable 
to  be  closed  to  commerce.  Here  Mr.  Chambers  resides,  as 
vice-consul  for  the  United  States,  and  representative  of  the 
Standard  Oil  Company,  to  watch  the  Russian  oil-trade.  The 
refineries  of  the  Rothschilds,  Nobel,  and  others  were  closed, 
and  negotiations  had  been  going  on  between  them  and  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  to  form  a  syndicate  and  divide  the 
trade  of  the  world. 

The  principal  Russian  oil-field  is  at  Baku,  on  the  Caspian. 
For  ages  the  gas  arising  there  through  the  fissures  in  the  rocks 
has  fed  the  perpetual  flame  of  the  fire-worshipers,  and  an  old 
priest  still  remains,  a  witness  of  modern  industry.  When  the 
well  of  the  Kalafy  Company  was  first  opened,  the  oil  burst  up 
in  a  fountain  nine  feet  in  diameter  and  forty  feet  high  into  the 
air — at  least  so  Arthur  Arnold  says.  The  average  depth  of 
the  wells  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Some  time  ago  a  pipe- 
line was  projected  to  be  laid  from  Baku  to  Poti,  over  the  Cau- 
casus, in  order  to  give  the  field  an  outlet  on  the  Black  Sea, 
Interested  in  this  were  three  American  gentlemen  who  wished 
to  prosecute  the  undertaking.  In  pursuance  of  their  object  they 
called  on  the  governor-general  of  the  province,  a  pompous 
man,  with  a  very  high  opinion  of  his  own  importance.  They 
were  introduced,  but  not  invited  to  be  seated,  nor  shown 
proper  civilities.  To  the  question,  "  What  is  your  business, 
gentlemen  ?  "  they  answered  by  explaining  their  object  and  the 


COASTING    THE  BLACK  SEA  27 

manner  of  its  intended  execution.  He  replied,  "  This  is  an 
enormous  project  and  requires  an  immense  amount  of  capital ; 
where  is  it  to  come  from?  "  On  their  informing  him  that  they 
represented  thirty  million  dollars  and  could  get  thirty  millions 
more,  the  weight  of  the  almighty  dollar  was  felt.  It  was, 
"  Please  be  seated,  gentlemen,"  and  all  other  civilities  were 
shown  them.  The  project  for  a  pipe-line,  however,  came  to 
nothing. 

The  railroad  from  Poti  to  Tiflis,  the  first  in  Transcaucasia, 
was  completed  in  1873.  It  was  subsidized  by  the  govern- 
ment, but  the  engineering  was  largely  done  by  foreigners. 
The  bridges  were  brought  from  England  in  pieces  ready  to 
erect.  The  Vladikavkaz  terminus  is  to  be  extended  across  the 
Caucasus  to  Tiflis.  The  cost  was  estimated  at  twenty-five 
million  dollars,  with  twenty-eight  versts  (twenty-one  miles)  of 
tunnel.  If  any  one  will  consider  the  energy  and  enterprise  of 
Russia  since  1880  he  will  be  convinced  that  she  has  immense 
national  possibilities.  Not  only  has  she  pushed  her  conquests 
in  Asia,  but  cities  and  towns  have  sprung  up  as  on  the  American 
prairies ;  new  life  has  been  infused  into  regions  dead  for  ages  ; 
the  apphances  of  modern  civihzation,  the  railroad,  telegraph, 
improved  irrigation,  higher  education,  and  many  of  the  amen- 
ities of  life,  have  followed  in  the  train  of  these  enterprises.  To 
deny  that  Russia  is  a  great  civilizing  agency  in  central  Asia 
is  to  shut  one's  eyes  to  the  facts.  It  was  only  in  1880  that 
Shobeloff  took  Geogtapa.  Merv,  an  oasis  practically  un- 
known before  O'Donovan's  journey  in  1881,  surrendered  in 
1884.  It  has  been  rebuilt  in  good  style.  Colonization  has 
been  encouraged ;  town  lots  have  been  given  away  on  condi- 
tion of  being  built  upon  immediately.  The  railway  was  ex- 
tended to  Baku  in  1882,  to  Askabad  in  1883,  thus  command- 
ing the  commerce  of  north  Khorassan,  to  Merv  in  1886,  and 
has  already  reached  Samarcand,  and  by  rapid  stages  is  being 
extended  also  from  Vladivostok,  on    the    Pacific;   it   is  fast 


28  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

spanning  the  wide  stretch  of  Asia.  Difficuhies  of  drifting  sand 
have  been  obviated  by  planting  trees  ;  artesian  wells  have  been 
dug,  a  canal  for  the  Murghab  constructed,  the  dike  of  Sultan 
Band  is  to  be  rebuilt,  and  four  hundred  thousand  acres  of  land 
reclaimed.  Everywhere  throughout  Transcaucasia,  too,  the 
marks  of  enterprise  are  evident.  Russia  has  a  great  future 
before  her — doubly  great  when  she  shall  have  learned  certain 
sound  lessons  of  civil  and  religious  freedom.  Other  nations 
which  have  taken  centuries  to  learn  them,  and  the  pages  of 
whose  histories  are  dark  with  records  of  civil  oppression  and 
religious  persecution,  must  not  be  impatient  with  the  develop- 
ment of  this  young  and  lusty  race.  There  are  indications  that 
the  reign  of  Czar  Nicholas  II.  may  show  as  great  advance  in 
civil  and  religious  liberty  as  that  of  his  predecessor  has  shown 
in  material  progress  and  territorial  expansion. 

There  was  no  danger  of  our  getting  dizzy  or  missing  the 
beauties  of  the  landscape  on  a  Russian  railway.  The  express 
on  the  Transcaucasian  Railway  went  at  a  speed  of  fifteen  miles 
an  hour.  The  mail-train  made  the  distance  of  some  two  hun- 
dred miles  in  seventeen  hours.  Accommodations  are  good 
and  time  for  meals  abundant,  if  one  remembers  that  three 
bells  ring  before  a  Russian  train  starts.  It  is  very  common 
for  the  traveling  Russian  to  take  his  bed  and  tea-urn  along 
with  him  on  the  train,  and  run  out  and  get  the  urn  filled  with 
hot  water  at  the  station.  A  missionary  party  once  sent  one 
of  their  number  out  with  a  pitcher  to  get  some  tea.  He 
returned  and  said  that  "  there  was  nothing  but  hot  beer." 
He  did  not  recognize  the  tea  in  large  glasses  and  without 
cream. 

The  first  part  of  our  course  from  Poti  lay  along  the  Rion. 
We  failed  to  notice  the  place  where  the  maniac  came  out  to 
greet  the  Argonauts.  The  marshy  lowlands  were  covered 
with  shrubbery  and  low  forests.  They  were  large  compared 
with  those  of  the  Circassian  coast  or  with  the  bushes  of  the 


COASTING    THE  BLACK  SEA  29 

swamps,  but  puny  compared  with  the  trees  of  the  Alleghanies. 
Quite  a  curiosity  was  an  extensive  forest  of  dead  trees  near 
Poti,  looking  hke  melancholy  types  of  death.  Stripped  of  all 
foliage,  and  even  of  their  bark,  they  seemed  like  pillars  of  de- 
spair. This  was  caused  by  the  embankments  of  the  railroad 
stopping  the  natural  drainage  and  forming  a  swamp.  On  the 
sloping  ascent  the  country  was  well  cultivated,  considering  the 
careless  manner  of  the  East.  Field  after  field  of  Indian  corn 
extended  on  either  side.  Hedges  of  willows  were  quite  fre- 
quent, but  the  common  fence  was  of  twigs  and  branches  of 
trees  placed  upright,  with  others  interlaced  diagonally.  The 
beech  and  pine  trees,  the  elder  with  ripe  berries,  the  thistle 
and  ferns,  all  reminded  us  of  home  and  the  common  latitude 
of  the  districts. 

The  scenery  could  not  be  called  grand,  but  it  was  quite 
beautiful.  Winding  and  irregular  vales,  covered  with  forests 
variegated  with  many-tinted  autumn  leaves,  lay  between  steep 
cliffs  jutting  out  from  the  main  chain.  When  through  the 
midst  rolled  the  rock-bedded  stream,  with  the  castles  and 
fortress  of  bygone  days  crowning  the  jutting  hills,  the  mili- 
tary road  winding  around  the  base,  and  the  snowy  peaks  afar 
in  the  background,  the  scene  became  truly  picturesque.  The 
tortuous  course  of  the  Rion  led  us  up  the  sides  of  the  Suram 
Mountains,  which  connect  the  upper  and  lower  ranges  of  the 
Caucasus.  It  was  at  times  a  hard  struggle  to  proceed,  and 
several  times  the  engines  halted.  The  grade  is  in  places  equal 
to  that  of  St.  Gothard's,*  and  even  with  the  power  of  three 
large  engines  progress  was  very  slow.  At  last  we  reached  the 
Pass  of  Suram,  at  the  height  of  thirty-two  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  Rion  here  became  a  dried  rivulet-bed,  and, 
crossing  the  narrow  watershed,  the  fountains  of  the  Kura  ap- 
pear wending  their  way  toward  the  Caspian.  It  was  not  yet 
dark  when  we  reached  the  old  city  of  Gori,  from  the  heights 

*  Since  then  a  tunnel  has  been  cut  and  the  grade  improved. 


30  PERSIAN   LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

back  of  which  frown  the  ruins  of  a  Georgian  fort,  and  in  the 
sides  of  whose  chffs  are  the  cave-dweUings  of  an  old  race. 
When  we  alighted  at  Tiflis  we  bade  formal  adieu  to  railroad- 
trains,  and  Melchizedek  met  us — a  Christian  from  Urumia — 
who  conducted  us  to  the  Hotel  de  I'Europe. 


CHAPTER    II 


GEORGIA    AND    ARARAT 


WE  were  detained  in  Tiflis  for  some  days,  and  had  an 
opportunity  to  see  this  ancient  capital  of  Georgia — 
ancient,  indeed,  but  so  modernized,  as  the  capital  of  the  Rus- 
sian provinces  of  Transcaucasia,  that  it  would  scarcely  recog- 
nize its  former  self.  The  population  of  the  city  is  said  to  be 
two  hundred  thousand,  and  is  rapidly  increasing.  It  has  many 
of  the  advantages  of  European  life,  including  railroad  com- 
munication, wide,  finely  paved  streets,  a  well-regulated  system 
of  cabs  or  phaetons,  an  organized  police,  good  postal  facilities, 
and  other  benefits  of  a  paternal  and  municipal  government. 

Tiflis  has  been  compared  to  Constantinople  in  respect  of  its 
mongrel  population.  Certainly  few  cities  can  equal  it  in  this 
regard.  Here  are  representatives  of  all  the  native  tribes  of  the 
mountains  and  plains — Georgians,  Mingrelians,  Kastahans, 
and  Chewsurs,  as  well  as  former  dwellers  in  Circassia,  Daghes- 
tan,  and  the  regions  of  Azerbijan  about  Urumia,  strangers 
from  the  far  East,  Jews,  and  Arabians.  We  meet  the  high 
fur  kulah  of  the  Persians,  the  brown  sheepskin  conical  hat  of 
the  Tartars,  the  pointed  cap  of  the  Grusinians,  the  fez  of  the 
Turks,  as  well  as  the  varied-colored  turbans  of  other  races. 
Armenians,  too,  in  their  semi-European  dress,  are  thickly  scat- 
tered through  the  crowd,  and  occupy  prominent  positions  in 
the  bazaars.  Europeans  are  many,  and  of  multiform  names. 
The  French  chiefly  own  and  conduct  the  hotels,  the  English 
have  the  Indo-European  telegraph,  and  both  are  engaged  in 

31 


32  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

the  importation  and  sale  of  European  merchandise.  An 
American  store  with  American  manufactures  also  claims  a 
place.  The  Russian  section  of  the  city  contrasts  strongly 
with  the  Oriental  quarters.  Its  large  stone  blocks,  its  museum, 
theater,  and  ducal  palace,  its  broad  avenues,  look  strange  in 
close  proximity  to  the  low  flat  houses  and  narrow  lanes  of  the 
city.  Directly  across  the  Kura  from  the  Russian  quarter  is 
the  Colony.  This  takes  its  name  from  a  colony  of  Germans 
from  Wiirtemberg  who  settled  here  in  the  early  part  of  the  cen- 
tury. Germans,  indeed,  are  settled  all  over  Russia,  and  are 
scattered  here  and  there  over  all  this  region  of  country  ;  but 
the  Tiflis  colony  has  a  peculiar  history.  About  1805-10  two 
colonies  started  eastward  from  Wiirtemberg.  One  went  off 
because  of  a  new  hymn-book  which  the  prince  was  trying  to 
introduce  against  their  conscientious  scruples.  Arrived  here, 
they  were  assigned  land  by  the  government.  The  other  col- 
ony was  a  party  of  second-adventists  going  to  Jerusalem  to 
await  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  under  the  lead  of  a  bold 
and  enthusiastic  woman.  They  were  stopped  here  by  the 
Cossacks,  and  settled  down  with  the  others.  Their  hopes  of 
the  imminence  of  Christ's  coming  have  diminished,  and  their 
objections  to  new  hymn-books  have  been  succeeded  by  indif- 
ference ;  but  their  approval  of  beer  knows  no  wavering,  and 
the  product  of  their  breweries  is  renowned  throughout  the 
Caucasus. 

The  best  full  view  of  this  heterogeneous  and,  in  a  true 
sense,  cosmopolitan  center  is  obtained  from  the  summit  of  the 
lofty  hill  on  the  southeast.  Starting  out  one  morning,  we 
were  kindly  guided  by  Mr.  M.  A.  Morrison,  A.M.,  the  agent 
of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  through  some  of  the 
most  interesting  parts  of  the  city  to  the  summit.  Our  course 
lay  through  the  old  quarter  and  the  crowded  bazaars  of  the 
Armenians  and  the  Tartars.    The  latter  is  familiarly  called  Sha- 


GEORGIA  AND  ARARAT  33 

tan  or  Satan  bazaar,  the  jangling  and  wrangling  of  the  Tartars, 
dickering  in  regard  to  the  price  of  their  wares,  seeming  to  de- 
serve this  sinister  epithet.  We  passed  the  cathedral,  an  ancient 
Georgian  edifice,  renovated  since  the  Georgian  church  has 
been  embraced  in  the  Orthodox  fold.  Next  we  came  upon 
the  warm  sulphur-baths,  famed  for  their  curative  properties. 
They  are  situated  underground,  their  dome-like  roofs,  with 
skylights,  being  on  a  level  with  the  ground,  because  of  the  low 
source  of  the  springs.  Tiflis  is  said  to  signify  "  hot."  No 
doubt  the  reason  the  city  occupies  this  site  is  the  presence  of 
the  springs,  for  the  situation  has  little  else  to  recommend  it. 
We  wended  our  way  around  the  hillside  until  we  reached  the 
Botanical  Garden,  an  oasis  in  the  midst  of  the  dreary,  barren, 
and  desolate  hills  on  either  side  and  around  the  city.  In  the 
early  spring  these  hills  are  covered  with  a  beautiful  verdure, 
and  when  the  snow  melts  from  the  mountains  the  Kura  swells 
into  an  impetuous  stream  and  rushes  through  the  rocky  gorge 
like  a  torrent.  But  the  dry,  sultry  summer  comes  on  apace, 
and  vegetation  on  the  hills  decays,  and  the  gardens  and  parks 
require  special  irrigation  and  care,  and  appear  all  the  more  re- 
freshing and  delightful  on  account  of  the  surrounding  desolate- 
ness.  Then  many  leave  the  city  for  the  mountains,  and  return 
with  the  coolness  of  autumn.  The  garden  is  a  favored  spot. 
Kept  ever  verdant  by  the  perennial  spring  which,  gushing  up 
far  above,  sends  its  cooling  stream  rushing  in  Httle  cascades 
down  the  hillside,  it  abounds  in  flowers  and  foliage  and  shady 
bowers.  On  the  opposite  hillside  a  company  of  Tartar  mourn- 
ers were  burying  their  dead.  How  rude  and  uncouth  their 
monuments  look  !  How  dreary  in  all  respects,  without  a 
flower,  a  blade  of  grass,  or  a  solitary  shade-tree  !  There  is 
no  beauty  in  their  city  of  the  dead. 

Far  above  us  was  the  old  wall  and  line  of  fortifications,  with 
strong  buttresses  and  high  circular  turrets,  and  the  massive 


34  PERSMN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

ruins  of  the  old  tower,  memorials  of  the  times  of  the  mighty 
Bagratides,  and  later  the  defense  against  the  Persian  *  invad- 
ers, prior  to  the  coming  forth  of  the  Russian  bear  from  the 
North,  We  mounted  up,  resting  awhile  at  the  fountain-head. 
Arriving  at  the  summit,  we  found  the  large  gates  shut  and 
our  way  blocked.  We  climbed  the  old  walls,  imagining  for  a 
moment  the  spear  of  the  enemy  might  pierce  us,  and  stood 
upon  the  breastworks  of  former  greatness.  While  standing 
here  some  Mussulman  women  ascended  the  hill,  Mr.  Mor- 
rison offered  his  hand  to  assist  them  over  the  wall,  but  no  ! 
they  drew  back  and  refused.  Their  hands  might  be  soiled 
and  their  clothes  torn,  but  to  touch  the  hand  of  an  infidel  was 
contamination. 

From  this  elevation  the  full  panorama  of  the  city  lay  in 
view.  In  the  midst  of  the  valley,  dividing  the  city  into  two 
equal  parts,  runs  the  rapid  Kura,  on  whose  banks  Pompey  and 
his  legions  celebrated  the  Saturnalia,  In  the  center  of  the 
city  the  river  itself  divides,  forming  an  island  which  supports 
the  piers  for  the  bridge.  A  strange  mixture  of  various  styles  of 
architecture  is  presented — the  minaret  and  mosque,  the  Greek 
cross  and  the  Latin,  the  weather-vanes  of  the  German  church, 
as  well  as  the  Armenian  domes.  Just  below  us  appeared  the 
garden  and  palace  of  the  Grand  Duke  Michael,  vacant  half 
the  year,  while  his  Highness  retreats  to  his  summer  residence 
at  Borshom.  Directly  opposite  it  is  a  fine  museum  of  the 
zoology  and  mineralogy  of  the  Caucasus,  To  the  left,  flank- 
ing the  city  on  the  west,  rises  the  hill  which  tradition  says  is 
the  Mount  Gilboa  on  which  Saul  was  slain.  When  it  is  set- 
tled whether  Mark  Twain  discovered  the  grave  of  Adam  it 
will  be  time  enough  to  discuss  the  accuracy  of  this  tradition. 
On  the  side  of  this  hill  stands  a  Latin  monastery,  and  near 

*  Aga  Mohammed,  Kajar,  in  1795  sacked  Tiflis,  leveled  its  churches, 
cast  the  priests  into  the  river,  and  carried  off  twenty-five  thousand  female 
captives. 


GEORGIA  AND  ARARAT  35 

by  a  Catholic  cemetery,  green  even  amid  its  parched  sur- 
roundings. 

Turning  our  eyes  to  the  right,  we  had  before  us,  on  the  op- 
posite hill,  a  collection  of  fine  stone  buildings,  forming  almost 
a  town.  This  is  the  Russian  arsenal,  frowning  down  upon  the 
city,  and  remhiding  any  of  the  inhabitants  who  may  have  a 
longing  for  independence,  that  hope  is  futile.  Tiflis  is  the 
military  headquarters  of  Transcaucasia,  and  has  accommoda- 
tions for  many  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  soldiers 
who  are  stationed  within  its  bounds  for  the  protection  and 
awing  of  the  inhabitants.  Transcaucasia,  from  the  outpost 
stations  all  along  the  Turkish  frontier  to  the  mountain  fast- 
nesses, is  one  huge  garrison,  and  everywhere  one  meets  the 
gay  uniforms  of  the  Cossacks.  Straight  before  our  eyes  the 
other  slope  was  dotted  thickly  with  tents,  the  camping-ground 
of  thousands.  They  believe  in  the  star  of  Russia,  and  that 
she,  of  all  nations,  is  the  greatest  and  best. 

Taking  a  long  look  at  the  curiously  interesting  picture  be- 
fore us,  and  turning  oiur  eyes  away  beyond  to  Mount  Kasbek, 
towering  to  the  height  of  sixteen  thousand  five  hundred  feet, 
we  descended  reluctantly  on  the  other  side  of  the  hill.  On  its 
brow  we  met  an  anti-Talmudic  Jew,  dressed  in  black-and- 
red  striped  robes  reaching  to  the  ground.  The  hostility  to 
the  Jews  who  accept  the  Talmud  is  very  bitter.  The  seat  of 
their  strength  is  in  the  Crimea,  where  they  have  in  their  pos- 
session some  valuable  manuscripts.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  we 
entered  the  Armenian  caravansary,  a  "  grand  depot "  full  of 
the  curious  and  beautiful  manufactures  of  the  East. 

The  museum  is  an  unique  and  interesting  exhibit.  It  con- 
tains wax  figures  of  the  numerous  tribes  of  the  Caucasus  and 
Transcaucasus,  dressed  in  their  native  costumes,  with  their 
old  armor  and  utensils.  The  seats  and  walls  are  covered  with 
embroideries,  the  floors  with  carpets,  the  windows  with  cur- 
tains, and  the  doors  with  portieres  of  the  double-faced  carpets 


36  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

{ghelims) — all  the  handiwork  of  women  of  its  various  races. 
Here  are  the  woods,  shells,  rocks,  birds,  and  beasts  of  the 
mountains,  valleys,  and  shores.  Ancient  ruins,  too,  and  tombs 
have  given  up  their  implements  and  antiquities  to  enrich  the 
museum. 

From  Tiflis  to  Tabriz  the  distance  is  less  than  three  hun- 
dred and  eighty  miles.  Three  hundred  miles  of  the  course  is 
through  Russian  territory,  and  the  remainder  in  Persian.  But 
we  had  no  long  and  wearisome  horseback  ride  at  a  caravan 
pace  over  the  whole  of  the  distance.  Such  was  the  manner 
of  travel  formerly  in  vogue  when  Dr.  Perkins  and  Miss  Fiske 
chmbed  the  mountains  of  Kiirdistan,  and  it  required  eight 
months  to  reach  their  destination  from  the  United  States. 
Even  much  later  this  was  the  mode  of  travel,  and  going  via 
Erzrum  the  only  safety  from  the  dangers  of  the  way  is  to  join 
a  caravan  and  come  at  the  slow,  jogging  gait  of  a  camel  or  a 
mule. 

We  were  agreeably  surprised  to  find  the  best  mode  of 
traveling,  where  steam-power  cannot  be  utilized,  to  be  the 
Russian  post  system,  which  is  now  completely  organized. 
About  every  ten  miles  along  the  principal  highways  there  is  a 
post-station,  with  relays  of  horses  kept  in  waiting,  so  that  the 
mail  is  sent  forward  with  great  rapidity.  In  case  of  necessity 
or  great  haste  the  traveler  can  go  by  this  means  on  a  flying 
gallop,  though  it  would  rightly  be  supposed  not  to  minister 
much  to  his  comfort.  The  government  maintains  an  efficient 
system  of  livery,  with  conveyances  of  many  varieties,  shapes, 
and  conditions,  from  the  two-wheeled  drosky  or  cart  and  the 
four-wheeled  troika — a  rough  wooden  bed  set  on  the  axles 
without  springs,  and  drawn  by  three  horses — to  the  well-up- 
holstered and  easy  carriage. 

Of  course,  before  our  arrangements  could  be  made,  the 
governmental  red  tape  must  be  unwound.  No  one  could 
travel  with  the  use  of  post-horses,  nor  have  accommodations 


GEORGIA  AND  ARARAT  37 

at  the  post-houses  along  the  road,  without  a  h'cense  regularly- 
drawn  up  and  certified  after  the  examination  of  his  passport. 
This  document  goes  by  the  name  of  padarozhuna.  The  pass- 
port system  of  Russia  says  to  ev^ery  man,  "  To  spy  out  the  land 
are  you  come,"  until  he  can  show  his  credentials  to  the  con- 
trary. When  we  entered  from  Austria,  whenever  we  stayed 
overnight  at  a  hotel,  when  we  wished  to  leave,  and  again 
when  we  crossed  into  Persia,  our  passports  were  demanded. 
A  hotel  proprietor  who  will  give  you  lodging  without  obtain- 
ing your  passport  and  having  you  registered  at  the  prefecture 
of  police  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  five  hundred  rubles,  to  be  sus- 
pected of  disloyalty,  as  well  as  to  be  subjected  to  profuse 
financial  bleeding  by  the  officials.* 

There  are  three  kinds  of  padarozhuna — the  single-sealed  or 
common  license,  given  to  travelers  indiscriminately,  and  the 
double-sealed,  and  the  triple  crown  license.  The  latter  are 
given  to  officials  and  representatives  of  foreign  governments. 

*  During  my  journey  to  Persia  in  1886,  on  giving  my  passports  to  the 
proprietor  of  a  hotel,  he  read  the  names  "  Samuel "  and  "Anna,"  and  ex- 
claimed, "  Why,  these  names  indicate  that  you  are  Jews  !  "  His  suspicions 
were  further  confirmed  by  a  visit  I  received  from  a  wandering  Nestorian, 
who  looked  like  a  Jew,  and  with  whom  I  spoke  an  unknown  tongue.  My 
passport  was  sent  to  the  police  station,  and  the  next  day  I  was  summoned 
to  appear  there  at  nine  o'clock  at  night.  I  went,  accompanied  by  a  Scotch 
gentleman,  who  interpreted  for  me.  The  officer  asked,  "  Are  you  not 
Moseanski?  "  I  affirmed,  with  a  smile,  that  I  was  far  from  it ;  that  I  was 
a  Christian,  en  route  for  Persia.  I  was  told  to  come  the  next  day  and  sign 
a  document  declaring,  "  I  am  a  Christian  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the 
United  States."  Then  my  passport  was  given  me  with  a  permit  to  reside 
in  Russia  for  twelve  months,  whereas  all  I  wanted  was  to  get  over  the 
frosty  Caucasus  and  into  Persia  before  the  snow  of  winter.  The  reason 
for  this  care  was  that  so  many  Russian  Jews  have  gone  to  America,  become 
naturalized,  and  returned  to  reside  in  Russia,  to  the  annoyance  of  the 
government.  The  latter  prefers  to  exclude  them.  In  all  my  dealings 
with  the  officials  of  Russia,  I  have  found  them  most  affable  and  polite, 
giving  no  trouble  at  custom-houses  or  on  post-roads,  nor  scrutinizing 
passports  closely,  with  the  above  exception. 


38  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

They  afford  them  prior  privileges  and  right  to  horses  at  the 
stations,  and  give  notice  to  postmasters  to  show  them  regard 
and  to  expedite  them  on  their  way.  We  were  fortunate 
enough  to  obtain  the  second  kind ;  for  it  happened  that 
M.  Audebert,  secretary  of  the  French  consulate  at  Tabriz, 
and  Mrs.  Abbot,  wife  of  the  English  consul,  were  leaving  for 
Tabriz  at  that  time,  and  joined  our  party  for  the  journey. 
Our  carriage  was  quite  a  complex  affair,  with  a  closed  apart- 
ment for  the  ladies,  and  a  covered  section  open  in  front,  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  one  of  which  was  occupied  by  passen- 
gers and  the  other  by  the  conductor.  A  box  yet  farther  in 
front  was  for  the  driver.  We  drove  out  in  fine  style,  recalling 
the  days  of  tally-ho,  the  driver  flourishing  his  long  whip  over 
the  six  horses,  and  the  conductor  sounding  the  bugle-call  to 
clear  the  way. 

For  some  time  after  leaving  Tiflis  our  course  lay  along  the 
valley  of  the  Kura.  A  river- valley  naturally  suggests  verdure 
and  fertility,  but  this  seemed  like  "a  dry  and  thirsty  land, 
where  no  water  is."  Far  and  near  the  fields  presented  a  most 
desolate  appearance,  and  fortunate  was  the  farm-house  which 
was  surrounded  by  a  few  trees.  The  irrigation  from  the  river 
is  little  able  to  withstand  the  scorching  heat  of  summer.  The 
river-banks  were  dotted  with  water-mills  for  raising  the  water 
to  a  higher  level.  The  plowmen  were  at  work  with  the  oxen 
and  the  primeval  wooden  plow.  As  neither  the  roadside  nor 
the  bleak  hills  around  afforded  us  interest,  our  attention  be- 
came confined  to  the  attractions  of  the  road.  Now  it  was  a 
caravan  of  camels  marching  patiently  and  meekly  in  long 
line,  with  only  a  connecting  rope,  the  leader  preceding  with 
a  jingling  bell  on  its  big  neck.  Then  in  contrast  with  these 
huge  creatures  would  come  the  Lilliputian  donkeys,  with  im- 
mense pack-saddles  and  burdens  larger  than  themselves — a 
never-ending  source  of  amusement.  Again  a  mingling  group 
of  buffaloes  and  oxen  drawing  carts  and  rude  wagons  would 


GEORGIA  AND  ARARAT  39 

appear,  and  then  covered  wagons  drawn  by  horses,  suggest- 
ing the  old  emigrant-trains  of  America. 

As  our  constant  companions  we  had  the  two  h'nes  of  tele- 
graph-poles, one  of  wood  and  the  other  of  iron.  The  wooden 
ones  are  the  Russian  government  line,  which  goes  as  far  as 
Julfa.  The  iron  ones  are  the  great  Indo-European  hue, 
which,  proceeding  via  Tabriz,  connects  at  Teheran  with  the 
Indian  government  line.  The  line  was  built  by  Messrs.  Sie- 
mens, who  are  retained  by  contract  to  keep  it  in  repair,  and 
have  their  agents  for  that  purpose  all  along  the  route.  The 
iron  posts  were  brought  from  England  ready-made.  By  means 
of  this  line  the  foreigners  in  Tabriz  and  Teheran  get  the  most 
important  news  of  the  world  every  morning,  written  out  and 
sent  around  to  them. 

For  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  the  magnificent  military, 
postal,  and  commercial  thoroughfare  continues,  certainly,  next 
to  a  railroad,  the  best  thing  on  which  to  hasten  the  Cossacks 
to  the  front.  While  we  were  proceeding  our  progress  was  quite 
rapid  and  satisfactory ;  but  at  many  of  the  stations  there  were 
stoppages  for  new  relays  of  horses,  so  that  much  of  the  time 
in  going  was  lost  in  waiting.  We  had  to  content  ourselves 
with  a  progress  of  thirty  miles  for  what  of  Saturday  remained 
after  our  late  start ;  and  we  rested  over  Sunday  at  a  post-house, 
which,  together  with  a  watermelon  stand  and  a  caravansary, 
made  up  the  place.  The  chief  sights  to  be  seen  without  were 
a  company  of  Cossacks  bivouacking,  and  some  swine  which 
seemed  to  merit  the  disdain  of  the  Jew  and  the  Mohamme- 
dan. The  typical  post-house  has  two  rooms  free  for  travelers, 
furnished  with  a  stand  for  the  omnipresent  samovar,  and  two 
bedsteads,  whose  mattresses  are  hard  boards.  This  is  amply 
sufficient  for  a  Russian,  who  may  be  said  to  take  the  command 
of  Christ  to  the  impotent  man  as  of  perpetual  and  universal 
obligation.  The  old-school  Russian  is  not  himself  unless  ac- 
companied by  his  bed.     On  the  principle  of  doing  as  Rome 


40  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

does  when  you  are  in  Rome,  we  had  provided  for  the  emer- 
gency. So  in  true  Oriental  style,  seven  in  a  room,  the  other  one 
being  in  like  manner  occupied,  we  passed  two  happily  fleeting 
nights. 

Monday  morning,  at  three  o'clock,  found  us  again  on  the 
way ;  and  after  being  kept  waiting  most  of  the  afternoon  we 
determined  to  try  an  all-night  trip.  From  Dilijan  the  charac- 
ter of  the  country  suddenly  changed.  We  began  to  ascend  the 
valley  of  the  Akstafa,  covered  with  forests  of  beech  and  pine, 
and  pronounced  by  all  very  beautiful.  The  road  ascends  with 
many  tortuous  windings,  guarded  by  posts,  until  at  the  sum- 
mit the  altitude  of  seventy-three  hundred  feet  is  reached.  We 
had,  however,  little  opportunity  of  enjoying  the  scenery,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  darkness,  but  because  the  bitter,  icy 
coldness  compelled  us  to  envelop  ourselves  in  all  our  wraps. 

Morning  brought  us  alongside  of  Lake  Goktcha  or  Sivan, 
a  beautiful  mountain  lake,  equal  in  extent  to  the  largest  lakes 
of  Switzerland.  The  gray  morning  light  cast  a  pleasing  glare 
on  its  crystalline  waters,  but  the  barren  volcanic  hills  by 
which  it  is  surrounded  make  its  appearance  far  less  attractive 
than  if  it  were  bordered  with  grassy  and  wooded  shores.  It 
is  noted  for  its  fine  trout,  though  we  had  to  bear  the  disap- 
pointment of  being  unable  to  obtain  any  at  the  Malaka  vil- 
lages along  the  road.  One  of  their  mountain  villages — a  little 
off  from  the  lake — named  Seminofka,  excited  our  lively  inter- 
est. The  houses,  contrasting  well  with  the  prevailing  style  of 
mud-houses,  were  built  of  wood,  one  story  high,  the  roofs  of 
many  being  covered  with  huge  haystacks,  oftentimes  higher 
than  the  houses,  of  symmetrical  conical  shape,  so  as  readily  to 
shed  the  rain.  The  people  of  the  place  raise  great  numbers 
of  cattle  and  horses,  which  seemed  in  better  condition  than  any 
we  observed  elsewhere.  The  cattle  as  well  as  the  horses  are 
raised  for  draft-work,  for  it  is  a  tenet  of  their  faith  not  to  eat 
flesh.     They  have  control  of  most  of  the  freightage  of  Trans- 


GEORGIA  AND  ARARAT  41 

Caucasia,  while  the  drosky  or  phaeton  system  of  Tiflis  is  in 
their  hands.  The  village  was  alive  with  activity  at  this  early 
hour,  and  the  hurrying  to  and  fro  to  bring  water  from  the 
mountain  spring  at  one  end  of  the  village — each  woman  car- 
rying two  buckets  suspended  on  a  pole  across  her  shoulders — 
the  patter  of  milk  in  the  pails  coming  from  groups  of  cow- 
herds, and  the  general  appearance  of  things,  showed  that  in- 
dustry was  their  motto. 

Here  we  witnessed  a  most  beautiful  sunrise,  which  in  the 
brilliancy,  harmony,  and  perfection  of  its  colors  could  scarcely 
be  surpassed. 

"  Lo,  in  the  East 

Flamed  the  first  fires  of  beauteous  day,  poured  forth 

Through  fleeting  folds  of  night's  black  drapery- 
High  in  the  widening  blue  the  herald  star 

Faded  to  paler  silver  as  there  shot 

Brighter  and  brighter  bars  of  rosy  gleam 

Across  the  gray. 

A  white  verge,  clear,  a  widening,  brightening  white 

Caught 

By  topmost  clouds,  and  flaming  on  their  rims 

To  fervent,  golden  glow,  flushed  from  the  brink 

With  saffron,  scarlet,  crimson,  amethyst ; 

Whereat  the  sky  burned  splendid  to  the  blue, 

And,  robed  in  raiment  of  glad  light,  the  King 

Of  life  and  glory  came. 

"So  in  the  East  the  miracle  of  day 
Gathered  and  grew.     The  pleasured  gaze 
Roamed  o'er  the  feast  of  beauty."  * 

Its  bright  shining  was,  however,  unable  to  dispel  the  chilli- 
ness of  the  atmosphere.  The  region,  we  were  not  siu"prised  to 
learn,  is  becoming  a  popular  summer  resort  for  the  wealthier 
denizens  of  the  Erivan  plain  during  the  heated  term. 

All  day  we  proceeded,  descending  from  this  height  through 

*  Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  "  The  Light  of  Asia." 


42  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

a  monotonous  region.  Delays  for  horses  gave  us  full  time  to 
forage  for  milk,  eggs,  and  fruit  in  the  villages,  to  add  to  the 
picnic  stock  which  we  had  laid  in  at  Tiflis.  Restaurants  there 
were  none,  and  all  the  provision  the  post-houses  could  furnish 
was  tea  in  the  samovar — the  constant  beverage  of  the  millions 
of  Asia.  When  the  darkness  of  night  grew  upon  us,  the  rain 
drove  us  to  shelter,  and  we  eagerly  sought  repose  again  after 
forty  hours'  intermission.  The  ladies,  preferring  the  carriage 
to  the  post-house  accommodations,  turned  it  into  a  Pullman 
sleeper. 

In  the  first  stages  of  Wednesday  some  interesting  sights 
appeared.  Mount  Alogos,  whose  height  is  thirteen  thousand 
five  hundred  feet,  presented  its  snowy  crest,  and  far  away  lay 
Etchmiadzin,  the  seat  of  the  Armenian  cathoHcos,  whence 
he  exercises  supremacy  over  his  followers  in  Russia,  Turkey, 
Persia,  and  other  Asiatic  countries.  Beyond  was  Turkey  itself, 
and  our  conductor  pointed  out  the  situation  of  Bayazid,  the 
scene  of  the  terrible  brutahties  in  the  late  war. 

Farther  on  Mount  Ararat  came  grandly  into  view,  fully  sixty 
miles  away.  We  had  been  anticipating  with  extreme  pleasure 
the  sight  of  the  wonderful  mount  as  the  dessert  of  our  Asiatic 
repast.  Our  first  view  fully  reahzed  our  expectations,  though 
not  as  satisfactorily  as  did  later  and  closer  views.  The  peak 
of  the  great  Ararat  was  encircled  by  the  clouds  which  envel- 
oped its  summit.  These  themselves  appeared  very  beautiful 
in  the  ghstening  sunlight,  and  now  and  then  the  hoary  white 
head  would  pierce  its  environment  and  lift  itself  loftily,  as  if 
scorning  things  terrestrial. 

Before  long  we  neared  Erivan,  the  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  same  name.  The  brow  of  the  hill,  overlooking 
the  valley,  is  occupied  by  a  Russian  fort  and  arsenal,  and 
with  the  ruins  of  the  fortifications  of  the  Persians  during  their 
former  occupation  of  the  region.  The  valley,  as  we  looked 
down  upon  it,  was  certainly  charming.     It  is  an  oasis  in  a 


GEORGIA  AND  ARARAT  43 

parched  land,  and  a  delight  to  the  eyes  after  so  much  desola- 
tion. Orchards  and  vineyards,  cultivated  forests  and  green 
fields,  with  farms,  bearing  marks  of  steady  culture,  and  the 
town  nestling  among  the  shade-trees,  were  a  treat  and  refresh- 
ment. Nature  has  favored  this  valley  highly,  and  art  has  not 
lagged  in  coming  to  her  assistance.  Unlike  Lake  Van  and 
Lake  Urumia,  Lake  Goktcha  or  Sivan  is  fresh  water  and  has 
an  outlet.  The  river  Zenghi  flows  from  it,  and  bears  its  re- 
freshing and  fructifying  stream  down  through  the  valley,  finally 
emptying  into  the  Aras.  By  artificial  irrigation  this  stream 
becomes  the  constant  and  inexhaustible  source  of  blessing, 
causing  the  wilderness  to  be  glad,  and  the  desert  to  blossom 
as  the  rose. 

Erivan,  a  progressive  and  thriving  city,  is  remarkable  for 
little  except  as  having  been,  as  we  are  told,  the  antediluvian 
residence  of  Noah.  The  fort  and  mosque  are  said  to  be  worth 
a  visit ;  but  what  time  we  had  was  spent  at  the  only  hotel  test- 
ing the  cuhnary  art  of  the  place,  in  a  department  other  than 
that  of  architecture,  and  in  the  bazaars,  laying  in  a  supply  for 
future  experiment  in  underwear  in  a  cognate  branch  of  industry. 

Proceeding  farther,  almost  the  only  object  which  could  draw 
our  attention  was  Ararat,  which  for  three  days  was  almost  con- 
stantly in  view.  It  was  the  last  sight  at  night  and  the  first  in 
the  morning.  There  it  stood,  silent,  solitary,  awe-inspiring, 
mysterious,  grand.  The  clouds  had  rolled  away  and  left  it 
distinct  in  all  its  majestic  outline  and  massiveness.  The  ages, 
like  the  clouds,  have  come  and  gone,  but  it  remains  immov- 
able. Since  the  ark  rested  on  its  heights  there  have  been 
movements  in  heaven  above  and  on  the  earth  beneath — earth- 
quake, storm,  and  flood — but  it  remains,  presumably,  substan- 
tially the  same.  Like  the  old  ocean,  a  thousand  years  sweep 
over  it  in  vain.  It  reminded  one  of  Napoleon's  address  under 
the  shadow  of  the  pyramids.  In  forty  centuries  what  has  it 
not  seen  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  empires  and  the  wonderful 


44  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

movements  of  the  race  of  Noah  ?  He  sits  a  king,  wrapped  in 
his  snowy  robes,  and  with  a  perennial  crown  upon  his  brow. 
Though  the  puppet  kings  of  men  may  include  him  in  their 
dominion,  he  scorns  subjection  to  theu"  sway,  and  even  bids 
defiance  to  the  king  of  day.  However  near  and  furiously 
Apollo  may  drive  his  chariot  and  let  his  horses  blow  their 
warm  breath  upon  him,  neither  the  fire  from  his  eye,  the  heat 
from  the  wheels,  nor  the  warm  breath  of  the  horses  can  cause 
the  whiteness  of  his  countenance  to  color,  or  tan  his  fair  com- 
plexion. His  foot  may  become  scorched  and  burned,  his 
twin  brother,  the  Little  Ararat,  may  lay  aside  his  crown,  but 
the  Great  Ararat,  unsubdued,  lifts  his  proud  head  nearer  to  the 
throne  in  the  sky  and  acknowledges  no  allegiance.  The  Little 
Ararat  is  like  an  earthly  dynasty,  which  for  a  season  wears  the 
insignia  of  supremacy  and  then  must  surrender  them ;  but  the 
Great  Ararat  is  like  God  himself,  whose  dominion  is  everlasting. 

Ararat  is  not  now  the  mysterious  and  unknown  mountain, 
the  center  of  myths  and  legends  and  of  superstitious  awe 
among  the  natives,  and  of  vague  admiration  and  reverence 
from  the  Christian  world.  It  is  true,  the  popular  associations 
still  cling  around  it.  Bryce,  in  his  work  *  describing  his  ascent, 
gives  an  extended  notice  of  these  traditions.  It  was  supposed 
to  be  the  center  of  the  earth.  It  was  connected  with  the 
Chaldean  worship  of  the  stars.  Upon  it  stood  a  pillar  with 
the  figure  of  a  star.  Before  the  birth  of  Christ  twelve  wise 
men  were  stationed  by  the  pillar  to  watch  for  the  appearing 
of  the  star  in  the  east,  which  three  of  them  followed,  when  it 
appeared,  to  Bethlehem. 

Its  summit  was  declared  to  be  inaccessible,  and  it  became 
almost  an  article  of  faith  with  the  Armenians,  and  a  firm  be- 
lief among  all  the  natives,  that  God  would  not  permit  it  to  be 
ascended  ;  nor  are  they  yet  convinced  that  this  has  ever  been 
done.    So  much  stronger,  observes  a  traveler,  is  prejudice  than 

*  "  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat  in  1876,"  by  James  Bryce,  M.P. 


GEORGIA  AND  ARARAT  45 

evidence.  On  its  top  were  said  to  be  the  remains  of  the  ark. 
Far  in  the  distant  past  the  monk  Jacob  attempted  its  ascent, 
to  obtain  some  of  the  precious  rehcs.  In  the  midst  of  each 
attempt  he  was  overcome  with  sleep,  and  found  himself  on 
awakening  at  the  same  point  where  he  started.  The  third  time 
an  angel  told  him  that  it  was  forbidden  man  to  touch  the  ves- 
sel in  which  the  race  had  been  preserved,  but  he  gave  him  a 
piece  of  the  ark  as  a  reward  for  his  perseverance.  The  relic 
is  said  to  be  still  preserved  in  the  treasury  of  the  monastery 
of  Etchmiadzin. 

All  these  myths  have  been  rudely  shattered  and  cast  into 
the  vortex  in  which  the  legendary  lore  of  the  nations  is  fast 
disappearing.  Modern  adventure  and  scientific  investigation, 
which  compass  sea  and  land  in  the  search  for  truth,  have  dis- 
pelled all  these  fancies,  and  have  given  us  much  information 
about  this  Koh-i-Nuh.  Daring  travelers,  from  Parrot,  in  1835, 
to  Allen  and  Sachtleben,  the  bicychsts,  who  waved  the  Ameri- 
can flag  on  it  July  4,  1890,  have  scaled  its  glaciers  and  crossed 
its  ravines  and  stood  upon  its  summit.  Its  altitude  has  been 
measured.  Its  geological  structure  has  been  critically  treated 
by  the  celebrated  Hermann  Abich.  Its  great  chasm  on  the 
north  and  east  sides  has  a  perpendicular  height  of  four  thou- 
sand feet.  Its  fissures  and  its  glaciers  have  been  described. 
I  will  not  repeat  the  description.  Its  solitary  position  adds 
much  to  its  grandeur.  At  Karmalou,  a  station  directly  east 
of  the  mount,  we  ascended  to  the  flat  roof  of  one  of  the 
native  houses  and  took  a  long  and  meditative  view  of  Ararat. 
Though  thirty  miles  away,  the  levelness  of  the  country  and  the 
lack  of  intervening  objects  made  this  appear  scarcely  credible. 
From  the  plain  the  Great  Ararat  rises  in  irregular  form  to  the 
height  of  seventeen  thousand  feet  above  sea-level.  Its  line  of 
perpetual  snow  is  thirteen  thousand  four  hundred  feet.  The 
Little  Ararat  is  almost  a  perfect  cone,  thirteen  thousand  feet 
high,  and,  though  below  the  level  of  perpetual  snow,  was  for 


46  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

a  considerable  distance  down  covered  with  the  white  winding- 
sheet,  owing  to  the  rigorous  season.  Its  summit  is  the  boun- 
dary-hne  of  the  empires  of  the  czar,  the  suhan,  and  the  shah. 

In  1883  the  Levant  "  Herald  "  pubhshed  a  detailed  account 
of  an  alleged  discovery  of  the  ark  on  Mount  Ararat.  In  1893, 
Dr.  Honri,  a  Chaldean  archdeacon,  claimed  to  have  seen  the 
ancient  "  houseboat."  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  what 
it  is  that  has  apparently  deceived  these  worthy  and  no  doubt 
veracious  chroniclers. 

Any  doubt  that  existed  as  to  the  volcanic  nature  of  the 
mountain  was  dispelled  by  the  earthquake  in  1840,  which, 
accompanied  by  a  loud  subterranean  roar  and  a  great  blast  of 
wind,  shook  the  giant  mass  to  its  center.  Old  Agghuri,  a  pas- 
toral village  of  the  Armenians  at  the  foot  of  the  chasm,  was 
overwhelmed  with  instant  and  total  destruction.  The  vine 
from  which  Noah  is  said  to  have  made  his  wine,  the  willow 
which  sprang  from  a  plank  of  the  ark,  and  the  old  monas- 
tery of  St.  Jacob,  in  which  Christian  service  had  continued 
undisturbed  for  a  thousand  years,  were  blotted  from  the  face 
of  the  earth. 

We  were  favored  with  a  sight  of  a  gorgeous  sunset  behind 
its  lofty  summit,  contrasting  with,  yet  similar  in  its  perfect 
beauty  to,  the  sunrise  of  the  previous  morning.  Nature  put 
on  her  best  attire  and  decked  herself,  as  in  evening  dress,  in 
robes  of  Oriental  splendor  and  magnificence.  The  sky  formed 
a  background  of  superb  loveliness.  The  light  reflecting  on  the 
snow  gave  it  the  brilliancy  of  crystal.  The  lights  and  shadows 
played  on  the  landscape.  The  red,  golden  sky  cast  a  purple 
hue  over  the  fields  and  gave  a  pleasing  tinge  even  to  the  bleak 
hills  in  the  east.  The  divine  Architect,  whose  handiwork  had 
excited  in  us  awe  and  reverence,  seemed  to  remind  us  that  in 
the  mixing  of  colors,  and  in  painting  the  outspread  curtain  of 
the  heavens  and  the  firmament  below,  there  is  no  artist  like 
the  divine.     Soon  the  evening  shade  deepened  and  the  dark- 


GEORGIA   AND  ARARAT  47 

ness  brought  our  delightful  day  to  a  close,  bringing  us  to  a  halt 
for  the  night. 

From  Ararat  we  proceeded  in  a  southeasterly  direction. 
'We  had  made  but  one  stage  on  Thursday  morning  when  we 
were  stopped  at  Sadarak  for  want  of  horses.  The  reason  was 
that  they  had  been  stolen  by  the  Kurds.  The  story  was  told 
that  a  band  of  Kurds  had  come  along  a  few  days  before  in 
need  of  horses,  and  had  appropriated  those  belonging  to  the 
station.  A  Russian  official,  who  had  stopped  for  the  night, 
resisting  them,  they  had  stripped  him  of  his  clothing  and 
effects,  including  his  watch  and  three  hundred  rubles,  and  in 
the  scuffle  stabbed  him  in  the  arm.  In  this  condition  he 
sought  shelter  in  the  house  of  the  telegraph-operator.  After 
five  of  the  best  hours  of  the  day  had  passed  we  were  able  to 
get  on  our  way  again.  Not  long  afterward  we  met  some  of 
these  wild  knights  of  the  mountains,  and  observed  a  Kurdish 
village — a  collection  of  tents,  always  easily  recognized  from 
their  black  covers.  About  four  or  five  thousand  Kiu^ds  roam 
incessantly  around  the  base  of  Ararat. 

From  Erivan  onward  the  road  was  not  in  good  condition. 
Often  we  waded  through  deep  sand  and  over  rough  and 
stony  places.  Once  we  stuck  in  the  bed  of  the  Arpa-Chai ; 
on  another  occasion  the  driver  fell  asleep  in  his  box  and 
nearly  precipitated  us  over  the  hillside.  Again,  in  passing 
between  two  cliffs,  trying  overmuch  to  avoid  Scylla,  he  almost 
dashed  us  against  the  rocky  Charybdis.  Then  it  was  that  our 
conductor  showed  his  metal,  brandishing  his  sword  and  hurl- 
ing invectives  at  the  driver's  defenseless  pate  in  jaw-breaking 
Russian,  more  terrifying  to  an  Anglo-Saxon  than  the  sight  of 
a  drawn  sword. 

On  Friday  morning  we  reached  Nakhejevan,  a  considerable 
town  of  great  antiquity.  The  name  means  "he  descended 
first,"  and  it  is  reputed  to  be  the  permanent  settlement  of 
Noah,  and  here  his  grave  and  monument  are  shown.     As  we 


48  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

were  informed  that  horses  could  not  be  obtained  until  the  mor- 
row, we  gladly  seized  the  opportunity  to  see  its  sights,  and 
strolled  through  the  public  gardens.  At  one  corner  we  came 
across  a  neat  httle  chapel  embowered  among  the  trees.  The 
fine  new  Armenian  church  of  brownstone,  so  rare  a  thing  in 
these  lands,  excited  our  surprise.  The  bazaars  presented  some 
interesting  features.  Having  finished  our  stroll  through  these, 
we  came  to  a  grand  ruin.  It  was  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
mosque,  a  reminder,  also,  of  the  former  dominion  of  the  Per- 
sians. The  outer  gateway  was  entered  between  two  large 
cylindrical  columns,  reaching  to  the  height  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet,  surmounted  by  a  curious  arch.  The  mosque  was  of 
equal  height,  and  magnificent  even  in  its  dilapidated  condition. 
The  dome  was  gone,  but  the  walls  were  embossed  and  orna- 
mented with  taste  and  art. 

The  chief  sight  of  interest  was  the  supposed  tomb  of  Noah. 
A  ten  minutes'  ride  brought  us  to  it.  It  is  in  an  Armenian 
cemetery  which,  aside  from  this,  presents  nothing  but  miserable- 
looking,  rough  headstones  and  mud-mounds.  The  monu- 
ment which  a  grateful  posterity  has  erected  to  the  memory  of 
our  common  father  is  not  an  imposing  one.  The  form  is 
that  of  a  regular  octagonal  prism,  whose  perimeter  is  eighty 
feet,  and  the  height  of  which  above-ground  is  three  feet,  and 
underground  ten  feet.  Hence  it  may  rather  be  considered  a 
vault.  It  is  built  of  common  stone  and  sun-dried  brick,  and 
plastered  over  with  gypsum,  which,  when  hardened,  with- 
stands the  influence  of  the  weather.  Two  flights  of  stairs  lead 
down  on  opposite  sides,  and  the  entrance  is  made  through  low 
wooden  doors.  The  interior  presents  little  attraction.  The 
floor  is  dirty  and  uncared  for.  The  roof  is  formed  by  sixteen 
half-arches,  joining  in  the  center  on  a  pillar.  The  pillar  is  hol- 
low, and  serves  the  purpose  of  a  flue  for  the  altar  of  incense 
at  its  base.  The  appearance  of  the  altar,  black  and  begrimed 
with  smoke  and  ashes,  would  seem  to  betoken  frequent  offer- 


Types  Sehn  in  the  Caucasus, 


GEORGIA  AND  ARARAT  49 

ings  from  the  faithful.  The  ceiling  was  stuck  over  with 
stones,  for  when  the  worshiper  comes  to  pray  he  beheves  that 
his  prayer  will  be  answered  if  a  stone,  pressed  by  him,  sticks 
to  the  ceiling.  The  tomb  is  said  to  be  held  in  great  venera- 
tion by  both  Armenians  and  Mussulmans.  Notwithstanding 
this  the  walls  are  defaced  and  marked  with  names,  showing 
that  our  Occidental  habits  are  not  confined  to  the  West. 

From  Nakhejevan  a  short  drive  brought  us  to  Julfa,  on  the 
Aras  River,  the  bovmdary  between  Russia  and  Persia.  We 
crossed  the  Aras  by  an  old-fashioned  wire-rope  ferry  in  the 
same  place  and  manner  that  Henry  Martyn  and  Justin  Perkins 
crossed  the  river.  At  low  water  the  boat  could  not  reach  the 
opposite  bank,  but  obliging  porters  stood  ready  to  receive  the 
ladies  on  their  backs  and  carry  them  to  land.* 

*  When  we  were  returning,  the  river  was  high  and  the  rope-ferry  would 
not  work.  Flat  diamond-shaped  boats,  each  side  about  ten  feet  long  and 
two  and  one-half  feet  high,  were  made  ready.  Our  baggage  was  placed  as 
a  seat  for  us  in  one  end  near  the  oarsman.  Some  chickens  and  a  donkey 
or  two  were  brought  on ;  and  a  crowd  of  Mohammedan  fellahs,  hundreds 
of  whom  were  going  to  Russia  to  get  work,  filled  the  rest  of  the  space. 
Collecting  the  fares  from  them  caused  a  great  hubbub.  The  ropes  were 
then  loosed.  We  were  pushed  off  from  the  bank  with  the  long  poles, 
which  were  used  as  oars,  and  started  diagonally  down  the  stream.  Then, 
in  beseeching  tones,  the  passengers  exclaimed,  "  Allah  akbar  !"  ("  God 
is  great!")  "In  the  name  of  God  the  compassionate,  the  merciful!" 
Next  they  shouted  in  unison,  "  Ya  ali,  ya  ali  !"  ("  Help  us,  help  us  !") 
The  pilot  answered,  "  It  is  enough ;  we  are  safe,"  and  soon  they  were  all 
tumbling  out  on  the  other  side  far  down  the  stream,  where  a  row  of  camels 
were  waiting  to  convey  our  baggage  to  the  custom-house. 

When  I  had  presented  our  passport  to  the  Persian  official,  he  looked  it 
over  and  affixed  his  vise  and  seal.  After  a  short  time  he  asked,  "Are  you 
a  Persian  subject  ?  "  I  said,  "  No."  He  said,  "  A  German  ?  "  I  looked 
surprised  and  said,  "An  American."  He  said,  "Oh,  I  can't  read  the 
passport."  I  asked  him,  "What  is  the  charge?"  "Whatever  you 
favor  me  with."  "  But  certainly  you  have  a  regular  charge  ?  "  "  No; 
with  such  honorable  persons  as  you,  we  are  content  with  whatever  favor 
you  confer." 


50  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

From  Julfa  one  road  leads  directly,  via  Salmas,  to  Urumia, 
five  days'  travel  by  caravan ;  another  to  Tabriz,  in  four  days. 
Horses  and  a  gig  had  been  sent  from  Tabriz  to  meet  us.  We 
had  nothing  to  do  but  to  go  forward.  When  the  baggage  was 
loaded  on  the  pack-saddles,  with  the  charvadars  or  muleteers 
keeping  pace  alongside,  and  the  others  of  our  party  had  mounted 
or  surrounded  the  rickety  gig,  we  made  a  presentable  caravan. 
The  day  was  bright  and  cheerful,  and  we  started  off  in  fine 
spirits.  But  alas  for  our  progress  !  The  sun  looks  upon  few 
worse  roads.  Not  to  speak  of  the  sand-bars,  or  the  embank- 
ments for  irrigation,  or  the  bridges  built  with  acute  angles,  our 
windings  through  the  valley  of  the  Dizzi  will  be  sufficient  to 
describe. 

During  the  season  of  freshets  a  torrent  had  come  raging 
through  the  defile,  washing  away  the  earth  and  loosening  the 
rocks  ;  but  in  the  dry  season  only  a  rivulet  preserved  the  iden- 
tity of  the  Dizzi.  The  river-bed  was  the  road.  Rocks  were 
everywhere,  often  one  or  two  feet  square.  Two  horses  were 
hitched  tandem,  and  Moses  was  mounted  on  the  leader.  His 
main  achievement  seemed  to  be  to  conduct  his  horse  around 
an  obstacle  and  then  pull  up  the  gig  against  it.  After  vain 
attempts  at  guiding,  he  dismounted  and  showed  his  good-will 
by  walking  in  the  water  behind  the  gig.  A  score  of  times  we 
alighted  and  became  quarrymen,  or  put  our  shoulders  to  the 
wheel.  The  springs  snapped  and  the  whip  became  a  stump. 
The  latent  balking  capacity  of  the  horses  was  developed.  No 
wonder  that  the  shades  of  night  overtook  us  before  we  got  to 
the  first  station.  During  the  succeeding  days  the  road  was 
not  so  bad.  The  landscape  was  monotonous  and  uninterest- 
ing, varied  by  an  occasional  village,  a  caravansary,  or  a  water- 
mill.  The  first  night  we  halted  at  Galin  Kaiya,  where  a  col- 
ony from  Talish  were  settled  in  Nadir  Shah's  time,  who  still 
speak  the  Talish  dialect  of  the  Persian  tongue.  We  took  pos- 
session of  its  best  guest-room.  Its  walls  were  of  dark  mud. 
There  was  a  large  range  at  one  end,  a  tandtir  in  the  center  for 


GEORGIA  AND  ARARAT  51 

baking  bread,  and  a  pile  of  loose  grain  at  the  other  end.  In 
this  confusion  we  managed  to  stretch  our  curtains  and  put  up 
our  camp-beds.  Our  other  inenzils  (stations)  were  Marend 
and  Sofian.  The  former  is  a  district  capital  of  eight  thousand 
inhabitants,  with  sixty  villages  surrounding  it  on  a  beautiful 
plain,  fertile  and  noted  for  its  melons.  Sofian  was  the  scene 
of  the  defeat  of  the  Turks,  in  1 585,  by  Hamza  Mirza.  In  these 
places  the  walls  of  our  lodgings  were  covered  with  grotesque 
frescos  of  all  the  inmates  of  Noah's  ark,  and  of  the  products 
of  the  Botanical  Gardens. 

On  November  4th  we  started  in  full  expectation  of  soon 
reaching  our  destination.  It  is  a  beautiful  custom  in  the  East, 
followed  since  the  time  of  Melchizedek,  to  go  out  some  distance 
to  meet  a  coming  guest,  and,  when  he  departs,  to  conduct  him 
on  his  way.  This  custom  has  been  adopted  by  foreign  resi- 
dents. During  the  morning  some  little  speck  in  the  distance 
would  often  cause  us  to  gallop  forward,  eager  to  greet  our 
friends,  but  only  to  be  disappointed.  At  last,  when  we  were 
eating  lunch,  Yacob  came  flying  up,  having  supplanted  his 
brethren,  and  announced  their  coming.  We  mounted  quickly. 
Soon  one  and  another  of  the  missionaries  and  the  brethren 
came  riding  up  with  many  salaams  and  Eastern  salutations. 
The  natives  were  mounted  on  their  gay  saddles,  in  holiday  at- 
tire, and  with  bright  faces.  As  they  turned  for  the  three  hours' 
ride  yet  before  us,  we  formed  together  quite  a  cavalcade.  There 
were  khans,  hadjis,  barons,  mirzas,  and  shameshas.  There  were 
Persians  and  Turks,  Armenians  and  Nestorians,  Jews  and 
Kurds,  as  well  as  representatives  of  seven  or  eight  States  of 
America.  We  were  glad  that  so  many  tongues  spoke  us  wel- 
come, and  that  so  many  hearts  were  open  to  receive  us.  Pro- 
ceeding thus,  before  we  were  aware  of  it,  the  city  of  Tabriz, 
with  its  gardens,  lay  stretched  before  our  eyes,  with  the  snow- 
covered  Sahend  beyond.  Soon  we  passed  through  the  old 
walls  of  the  city  and  reached  the  houses  of  the  missionaries  in 
the  Armenian  quarter. 


CHAPTER    III 

TABRIZ,  THE    METROPOLIS 

TABRIZ  is  the  metropolis  of  Persia,  the  first  city  in  commer- 
cial importance,  and  the  capital  of  Azerbijan,  the  finest 
province  of  the  kingdom.  Its  political  title  is  Dar-il-Sultaneh, 
the  "door  of  the  kingdom";  and  its  religious  title  the  "pin- 
nacle of  Islam."  Like  many  Oriental  cities,  it  has  witnessed 
the  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  at  one  time  borne  on  the  high  tide 
of  prosperity,  and  anon  overwhelmed  with  earthquake  and  de- 
spoiled by  war  and  pestilence.  In  the  time  of  Chardin  (sev- 
enteenth century)  it  could  boast  its  half  a  million  inhabitants, 
three  hundred  caravansaries,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty 
mosques.  A  century  ago  a  terrible  earthquake  shook  its 
houses  into  dust-heaps.  In  1810  it  was  estimated  by  Kinnier 
to  have  a  population  of  thirty  thousand  in  the  midst  of  its 
ruins.  In  1830  Dr.  Eli  Smith  reported  it  as  having  a  popula- 
tion of  sixty  thousand.  Now  it  is  estimated  at  from  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  to  two  hundred  thousand,  of  whom 
three  thousand  are  Armenians.  There  are  about  one  hundred 
Europeans  in  various  occupations. 

The  city  fills  the  arena  and  spreads  over  the  slopes  of  an 
amphitheater,  formed  by  red  and  yellow  hills,  at  the  head  of  a 
plain,  thirty-six  miles  in  length,  which  reaches  down  to  Lake 
Urumia.  These  hills  are  barren  and  at  first  sight  unattractive  ; 
but  as  one  gets  accustomed  to  Persian  scenery  they  impress 
one  with  a  beauty  of  their  own.  The  plain  on  the  other  side 
affords  both  a  similarity  and  a  contrast  to  the  bleak  hills.     In 

52 


TABRIZ,  THE  METROPOLIS  53 

part  of  it  the  soil  is  so  sandy  and  impregnated  with  salt  and 
sulphur  as  to  be  unproductive.  Sulphur  can  be  picked  up  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  salt  is  often  so  plentiful  as  to 
whiten  the  earth.  The  other  part  presents  a  pleasing  contrast, 
especially  in  the  opening  spring.  There  is  a  wide  extent  of 
well-cultivated  vineyards,  orchards,  and  gardens.  The  length 
of  the  city,  including  the  suburbs,  is  about  twelve  miles. 

A  bird's-eye  view  of  Tabriz  is  disappointing  to  one  who  has 
formed  conceptions  of  Oriental  magnificence  and  splendor. 
The  half-mythic,  half-poetic  ideals  of  Persian  grandeur  are 
rudely  shattered  by  a  glimpse  of  the  realities.  The  accumu- 
lated romance  of  the  ages,  concentrated  into  a  picture,  presents 
to  the  mind  a  city  with  lofty  domes  and  minarets  and  splendid 
palaces,  with  brilliance  and  light  and  beauty.  To  sober  sight 
the  gold  is  sordid  dust.  The  cities  of  Persia — Tabriz  among 
them — are  for  the  most  part  a  mass  of  mud-walls,  differing 
but  little  in  color  from  the  surrounding  hills  or  plains.  The 
flat  roofs  of  the  houses,  the  arched  roofs  of  the  bazaars,  the 
walls  of  the  gardens,  covered  with  a  mud-plaster,  look  com- 
mon and  unattractive,  and  give  the  whole  a  dingy  appearance. 
The  style  of  architecture  is  mean  and  inartistic.  The  houses 
are  for  the  most  part  only  one  story  high.  A  strange  appear- 
ance, as  of  a  conflagration,  is  presented  when  the  sun  is  re- 
flected from  the  tin  and  oiled  paper  in  the  windows.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  many  of  them  being  only  eight  or  ten  feet 
wide,  and  the  darbajids  or  alleys  only  half  that  width.  Those 
leading  out  to  the  king's  highways  are  broader,  the  one  to 
Teheran  being  a  fine  avenue  lined  with  trees,  called  the 
Kheaban.  A  few  streets  have  paving  and  sidewalks  of  cob- 
blestones. Those  of  the  Kala  were  paved,  in  1879,  by  fam- 
ished laborers,  who  were  thus  furnished  with  bread  by  the 
Manchester  Fund. 

Strolling  through  the  streets  gave  me  many  real  impressions 
of  Oriental  life.    Walls  rise  on  either  side  to  the  height  of  from 


54  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

ten  to  twenty-five  feet,  and  exclude  all  view  of  the  yards  or  of 
the  harems.  Entrance  to  the  yards  is  through  strong  wooden 
doors  in  the  walls.  Surrounding  the  gate,  and  forming  an  arch 
over  it,  are  checkered  or  vai'ious-colored  pilasters  of  brick. 
Formerly  the  gateways  were  low  and  unornamented,  because 
fear  of  oppression  prevented  a  display  of  wealth. 

The  crooks  and  bends  of  the  streets  are  innumerable ;  even 
the  Rasta  Koocha,  or  Straight  Street,  is  like  the  street  in 
Damascus  of  which  Mark  Twain  remarked  that  the  Acts 
showed  its  accuracy  in  saying  "  the  street  that  is  called 
Straight,"  and  not  affirming  its  straightness.  The  darbands 
are  like  New- Year's  resolutions — they  start  out  all  right,  but 
soon  change  and  come  to  a  sudden  end.  Attempts  to  take  a 
short  cut  frequently  led  me  against  a  door  at  the  end  of  an 
alley.  Many  times  I  have  found  myself  tripping  into  the 
steps  which  go  down  to  the  yards  and  take  up  much  of  the 
narrow  sidewalk.  More  often  I  collided  with  a  drove  of  don- 
keys. Oh,  how  many  caravans  of  donkeys  are  we  not  famil- 
iar wath !  — donkeys  with  provision-baskets  filled  with  grapes 
or  other  fruits,  with  garden-truck  or  firewood ;  donkeys  with 
butchered  animals  strapped  on  their  backs ;  donkeys  loaded 
with  two  mountains  of  straw  in  rope  netting  larger  than  the 
beast  itself ;  donkeys  with  all  sorts  of  building-material,  the 
brick  falling  off,  the  poles  dragging  behind  and  ready  to  hit 
an  unwary  passer-by  on  the  shins  ;  white  donkeys,  mounted  by 
white-turbaned  high  priests  of  Islam  or  veiled  khanums  of  the 
harems ;  wee  gray  donkeys,  with  the  rider  dangling  his  bare 
feet  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground ;  donkeys  returning  at 
double-quick  time,  their  loads  having  been  disposed  of ;  don- 
keys braying,  and  drivers  uh-uh-uhing — yes,  donkeys  are  the 
s,\^\.  par  excellence  of  the  streets  of  Tabriz.  Without  halter  or 
bridle,  they  crowd  on  one  another  and  over  all  the  sidewalks, 
leaving  no  room  for  the  pedestrian.  Some  may  try  to  main- 
tain their  right  of  way  against  these  street  caravans  by  the  free 


TABRIZ,  THE  METROPOLIS  55 

use  of  a  cane ;  but  I  found  that  the  easiest  manner  to  get  them 
out  of  one's  way  was  to  go  around  them.  Soon  it  became  a 
matter  of  indifference  to  me  whether  I  was  on  the  sidewalk 
or  in  the  middle  of  the  street.  The  latter  is  just  as  popular. 
But  in  that  I  had  a  new  danger  to  guard  against,  namely,  of 
tripping  into  the  holes  *  which  at  every  few  rods  open  into  the 
waterways.  Above  these  holes  a  sakka  or  water-carrier  was 
once  standing,  dipping  his  leathern  bucket  into  the  water  and 
filling  his  bag  of  skin,  which  he  carried  slung  over  his  hip. 
Coming  past  the  place  I  met  a  mounted  official  with  two  rows 
of  attendants  behind  and  before  him.  They  cried  "  Khabar- 
dar  ! "  ("  Take  notice  ! ")  and  the  crowd  at  this  slunk  against 
the  walls  to  let  the  great  man  pass.  Again,  a  carriage — a  late 
innovation — passed,  occupied  by  a  nobleman.  His  outriders 
galloped  ahead  and  cried  out,  "  Make  way  ;  the  prince  is  com- 
ing ! "  and  enforced  the  warning  with  blows  of  their  batons. 
When  they  reached  a  place  where  carpets  had  been  spread  in 
the  street,  and  men,  women,  and  children  were  seated  hstening 
to  the  eulogies  of  the  martyrs,  the  carriage  drove  over  the  rugs, 
while  the  pulpit  was  hustled  out  of  the  way,  and  the  audience 
pressed  one  another  against  the  walls.  Deference  is  paid  to 
the  man  only  who  has  a  great  retinue. 

In  strolling  around  I  encountered  a  variety  of  beggars, 
ragged,  dirty,  and  miserable ;  some  of  them  half-witted,  some 
blind.  One  was  without  arms,  another  a  dumb  man,  who 
could  only  say  "  Huk,  huk!"  An  old  hag  was  squatting  in 
the  street,  shivering  in  the  cold  wind,  and  crying,  piteously, 
"Give  me  bread-money!  May  God  bless  your  children! 
For  the  Prophet's  sake  give  me  a  black  money!  For  the 
sake  of  Jesus  t  look  upon  me  !  "    Some  little  ragamuffins,  like 

*  General  Von  Wagner,  among  other  reforms  he  tried  to  introduce, 
procured  an  order  for  the  stopping  up  of  these  holes.  To  bring  the  project 
into  ridicule,  the  opposers  blocked  up  the  skylights  in  the  bazaars. 

t  Mohammedan  beggars  ask  alms  from  Christians  in  the  name  of  Jesus. 


56  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

All  and  Gooli,*  ran  after  me  for  squares  and  pestered  the  peace 
out  of  me,  until  I  said,  "  Because  these  youngsters  trouble  me, 
I  will  give  them,  lest  by  their  continual  following  they  shame 
me  !  "  Farther  on  I  heard  the  sound  of  dogs  fighting,  and  saw 
a  group  of  children  gathered  on  a  roof  looking  down  upon  the 
scene.  What  was  my  surprise  on  reaching  the  place  to  see 
simply  a  boy  imitating  a  dog-fight,  mimicing  the  barks  and 
snarls  of  the  supposed  canines  in  a  marvelous  manner,  and 
reaping  his  reward  of  shahis!  On  passing  around  the  comer 
I  came  to  the  genuine  curs.  They  are  the  scavengers  of  the 
street,  and  have  two  or  three  kennels  in  every  ward.  They  are 
large  and  fierce,  and  bark  at  a  Christian's  heels  as  they  do  at 
any  strange  dogs  who  go  by.  The  shopkeepers,  too,  seemed 
to  enjoy  the  sport  of  hissing  them  on  and  of  watching  the  dis- 
comfiture of  Christians.! 

I  next  came  to  a  bazaarcha,  a  group  of  shops  such  as  are 
located  here  and  there  throughout  the  city.  This  bazaarcha 
consisted  of  a  couple  of  bakeries,  with  the  sangak  (sheets  of 

*  Ali  and  Gooli  were  two  little  waifs,  whom  every  foreigner  knew. 
They  grew  up  in  the  streets.  On  every  festival  day  they  were  in  their 
element.  "Sahib,  may  your  festival  be  blessed!"  At  every  arrival  or 
departure  of  guests,  they  were  there,  their  swift  little  feet  carrying  them 
along  with  the  cavalcade  of  horsemen,  until,  if  setting  out,  a  long  distance 
was  traversed  and  they  received  their  bakshish,  and  gave  their  blessing  on 
the  journey. 

t  The  street  dogs  almost  created  an  international  difficulty  on  one  oc- 
casion. An  Armenian,  having  imbibed  too  freely  at  the  cemetery  grog- 
shop, was  passing  along.  The  dogs  were  hissed  on  at  him.  He  drew 
his  revolver  and  shot  a  dog.  The  sayids  attacked  him,  declaring  that  he 
had  shot  a  man.  He  was  severely  dealt  with  and  taken  to  the  police  station 
half  dead.  Because  he  was  the  servant  of  the  Armenian  lady  teacher,  the 
teachers  all  came  to  his  rescue.  They  also  were  beaten  by  the  crowd. 
The  sufferers  being  Russian  subjects,  the  consul  demanded  that  the  sayids 
be  punished.  The  sayids  appealed  to  the  mujtehid,  and  asked  his  kind 
permission  to  loot  the  Armenian  quarter,  one  of  them  saying  that  his  father 
was  one  of  the  "  lootees  "  formerly.     The  Armenian  vartabed  wrote  the 


TABRIZ,  THE  METROPOLIS  57 

bread)  spread  out  on  a  plastered  incline,  or  flung  over  a  rod ;  a 
butcher's  shop,  with  some  sheep  dressed  and  hung  up,  a  steer 
and  buffalo  lying  in  the  street  on  their  hides,  ready  to  be  cut 
up,  other  sheep  tied  by  ropes  and  eating  watermelon  rinds. 
There  were  also  the  greengrocer  and  the  attar  or  spice  seller, 
who  dealt  also  in  tobacco,  and  had  bags  of  it  standing  before 
his  shop.  The  blacksmith  occupied  half  the  street,  and  every 
passer-by  dodged  behind  the  horse's  heels,  fearing  a  kick, 
especially  when  the  smith  was  twisting  its  ears  with  a  knotted 
rope.  The  bazaarcha  contained  also  a  bakkal  or  dealer  in 
fuel  and  horse-feed,  dealers  in  lime  and  in  petroleum,  and  a 
carpenter ;  and,  since  the  corner  is  of  some  importance,  it  had 
its  chai-khana  or  tea-house,  the  Persian  loafing-place,  corre- 
sponding to  the  saloon  of  civilized  (?)  lands.  The  beverage 
which  cheers  but  does  not  inebriate  was  dispensed  in  tiny 
glasses  all  the  day  long.  I  saw  a  fellow  strutting  hither  and 
thither,  and  calling  out  like  an  auctioneer ;  but  no,  he  was  not 
a  crier.  He  was  a  dervish,  who,  in  his  long  flowing  robes  and 
uncut,  unkempt  locks,  was  telhng  tales  of  faith  and  devotion, 
mingled  with  war  and  love ;  growing  fervid  with  the  progress 
of  his  plot,  his  strange  eyes  flashed  with  excitement  as  the 
climax  was  reached  and  the  "  black  "  money  began  to  pour 
down  upon  his  outspread  aba  or  cloak,  and  into  his  kashgul 
or  Indian  nut-shell,  which  his  pupil  carried  around  to  the 
shopkeepers.  Beyond  the  bazaairha  was  another  dervish, 
standing  before  a  highly  colored  canvas,  several  yards  square, 
on  which  some  sacred  scene  was  pictured,  which  added  inter- 

mujtehid  a  letter,  in  which  he  threatened  that  he  would  telegraph  to 
Teheran.  The  mujtehid  was  offended.  The  Armenian  merchants  feared 
for  the  consequences.  They  went  to  the  mujtehid,  told  him  their  vartabed 
was  an  ignoramus,  and  apologized  for  his  letter.  An  Armenian  subject 
of  Turkey,  a  few  days  afterward,  was  attacked  by  the  same  dogs.  He  ap- 
pealed to  his  consul,  but  was  answered,  "  I  came  here  to  deal  with  men, 
not  with  dogs!" 


58  PERSMN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

est  to  his  narrative  and  kept  the  attention  of  the  eager  crowd. 
In  the  open  space  not  far  distant  a  snake-charmer  was  to  be 
seen.  He  had  gone  to  the  Elan  Dagh  ("  Snake  Mountain  "), 
ten  miles  north  of  the  city,  whose  reputed  myriads  of  reptiles 
make  the  people  shun  it.  He  had  thrown  his  spell  over  some 
of  these  enemies  of  man,  and  brought  them  here  to  dehght 
the  crowd.  How  was  it  that  the  same  snake,  as  it  seemed, 
bit  a  hen  and  it  toppled  over  and  died,  with  visible  evidence 
of  pain,  yet  its  bite  had  no  terror  for  the  charmer  who  toyed 
with  it  .'*  Let  those  answer  who  know.  The  charmer  turned 
additional  pennies  into  his  pocket  by  selling  written  prayers 
guaranteeing  safety  from  snake-bites.  Vying  with  him  was  a 
trickster  with  imported  jacks  and  aces,  playing  three-card 
monte,  and  inveigling  the  youth  to  stake  their  shahis.  It 
was  a  continual  surprise  to  see  how  many  things  the  people 
were  unconcernedly  doing  in  the  confined  streets.  At  one 
place  was  a  group  of  villagers,  with  their  huge  sheepskin  hats, 
sitting  smoking  their  pipes.  One  was  sprawling  at  full  length 
in  the  sun,  asleep,  his  head  pillowed  on  a  cobblestone.  At 
another  place  a  huge  pile  of  earth  had  been  thrown  from  a  lot, 
and  the  moulder  of  sun-dried  bricks  was  filling  up  most  of  the 
street  with  his  layers  of  brick.  Another  was  mixing  a  bed  of 
mud  and  cut-straw  mortar,  so  large  that  barely  room  for  pass- 
ing remained.  The  bath-house  had  its  towels  hung  on  the 
walls  to  dry ;  the  weaver  was  using  the  same  place  to  an^ange 
his  long  warp.  Dyers  and  others  were  standing  in  the  gaziran 
or  fuller's  tank,  with  pantaloons  rolled  up  above  their  knees, 
and  washing  dyed  cotton  cloth,  and  kidskins  to  be  salted 
down  for  exportation.  Women,  too,  had  brought  their  quilts 
and  carpets  to  clean,  and  with  faces  carefully  veiled,  but 
limbs  bare,  they  were  standing  in  the  water.  Even  the  chil- 
dren were  able  to  make  the  narrow  street  their  playground. 
Boys,  more  than  half  naked,  were  running  about,  making 
mud-balls,  or  playing  marbles  with  sheep's  knuckle-bones.     I 


TABRIZ,  THE  METROPOLIS  59 

looked  to  see  them  trampled  upon  by  the  strings  of  camels  or 
prancing  horses  which  passed  so  close  to  them,  but  they 
escaped  without  injury.  When  a  Christian  passed,  the  urchins 
yelled  after  him,  "  Armeni,  Armeni!"  and  sometimes  followed 
and  hooted  him.* 

But  of  all  the  street  scenes  it  struck  me  as  most  ludicrous 
to  see  was  a  perambulating  barber,  his  implements  of  trade  in- 
serted in  his  girdle,  present  his  hand-mirror  before  the  face  of 
a  laborer,  and  the  latter,  taking  the  hint,  squat  down  in  the 
street  to  submit  himself  to  the  operation.  His  head  was  soon 
shaved — ah  except  the  locks  behind  the  ears — and  his  beard 
trimmed  in  the  sight  of  all. 

The  city  of  Tabriz  is  divided  into  twenty-four  wards.  The 
oldest  and  principal  one  is  the  Kala,  or  fortified  portion,  which 
still  retains  the  name,  though  the  walls  have  for  the  most  part 
disappeared,  the  moat  is  filled,  and  the  space  used  for  build- 
ings. The  center  of  the  Kala  is  occupied  by  the  bazaars,  the 
eastern  side  by  the  government  buildings,  and  the  southwest 
corner  by  the  Armenians  and  Europeans. 

The  bazaars  are  among  the  finest  in  the  East.  "  The  Mir- 
ror of  Cities,"  a  Persian  work,  says  that  there  are  five  thousand 
shops  in  the  main  bazaars,  and  fifteen  hundred  in  other  parts 
of  the  city.  General  Schindler,  in  1886,  reported  thirty- 
nine  hundred  and  twenty-two  shops  and  one  hundred  and 
sixty-six  caravansaries.  From  the  time  of  the  last  earthquake 
until  about  twenty-five  years  ago  many  of  them  were  rude 
structures,  roofed  with  timbers.  These  were  removed  by 
Tamash  Mirza  Mujid-ud-Doulah,  and  extensive  brick  struc- 
tures with  high-vaulted  roofs  have  replaced  them.  The  arches 
often  span  the  breadth  of  thirty  feet,  and  show  well  the  pecu- 

*  In  distant  wards  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  gamins  to  sling  stones  at 
Christians ;  but  when  we  remember  that  Washington  City  arabs  called 
"  Bah,  bah!"  after  the  Persian  minister,  because  of  his  lambskin  hat,  we 
have  little  reason  to  complain. 


60  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

liar  skill  of  the  Persian  in  constructing  the  arch.  The  best 
idea  of  these  bazaars  can  be  formed,  by  one  who  has  never 
seen  them,  from  the  arcades  of  a  European  or  American  city. 
Light  and  air  are  admitted  through  small  skylights.  The 
shops,  ranging  along  between  the  piers,  have  about  ten  or 
twelve  feet  frontage,  and  even  less  depth.  Some  have  addi- 
tional rooms  for  storage.  Movable  shutters  inclose  them  at 
night. 

The  bazaars  excited  my  curiosity  as  much  as  anything  in 
Persia.  They  possessed  a  never-failing  interest.  To  take  a 
view  of  them  I  entered  the  Amir  Bazaar,  one  of  the  finest  of 
its  kind.  What  a  throng  there  was!  City  and  village  were 
mingling  and  rubbing  against  each  other  amid  great  confusion, 
with  a  continual  cry  of  "  Khabar-dar!  "  and  excited  dickerings.* 

The  Amir  Bazaar  presented  first  to  the  view  a  long  line  of 
dealers  in  prints  and  dress-goods,  displaying  all  the  gaudy 
colors  that  Manchester  can  mix  for  the  Oriental  taste.  The 
dealers  were  sitting  on  rugs  on  the  floor,  quietly  waiting  for 
customers.  Their  stock  of  merchandise  was  placed  in  full 
view  and  within  easy  reach  of  them ;  the  abacus  and  account- 
books  were  lying  beside  them.  One  was  smoking  his  kalean, 
another  reading  the  Koran  or  saying  his  prayers,  keeping  an 
eye  squinted  all  the  while  on  the  passers-by,  and  interrupting 
his  devotions  to  detain  a  customer.  Between  the  shops,  on 
spaces  four  feet  square  in  front  of  the  piers,  sat  Armenian  sil- 
versmiths. Each  one  had  a  show-case  for  displaying  his  wares, 
and  room  enough  behind  it  for  the  motion  of  his  elbows. t 

From  the  Amir  Bazaar  I  passed  into  the  Amir  caravansary, 

*  Foreign  ladies  can  scarcely  visit  the  bazaars,  except  in  Armenian  cos- 
tume, because  a  curious  and  gaping  crowd  gathers  around,  making  it  in- 
convenient and  possibly  dangerous  to  thread  their  labyrinths. 

t  In  the  winter  they  sit  with  their  abas  or  cloaks  closely  wrapped  around 
them,  and  pans  of  charcoals  under  their  hands.  Habit  has  inured  them 
to  withstand  severe  cold. 


TABRIZ,  THE  METROPOLIS  61 

so  called  from  a  former  Amir-i-Nizam,  who  built  it  and  the 
bazaar.  In  the  center  of  this  caravansary  is  an  open  square, 
two  or  three  hundred  feet  in  dimension,  and  a  fountain. 
Broad  pavements  surround  the  square  and  divide  it  into  sec- 
tions, which  are  planted  with  trees.  The  pavements  were 
occupied,  as  usual,  by  cases  of  merchandise,  which  were  quite 
safe,  as  the  outer  doors,  as  well  as  those  of  the  bazaars,  are 
locked  at  sundown,  and  watchmen  patrol  on  the  arched  roofs. 
The  entrances  are  ddldns  or  arcades,  lined  with  shops.  The 
sides  of  the  squares  are  built  up  two  stories  high  and  divided 
into  shops  and  offices.  They  are  occupied  by  Messrs.  Ziegler 
&  Co.,  the  Imperial  Bank,  and  other  European  and  Armenian 
merchants,  and  by  the  Book  Depository  of  the  American  Bible 
Society. 

Thence  I  passed  to  the  Geurgi  or  Georgian  timcha,  a  cir- 
cular or  octagonal  structure,  covered  by  a  dome.  Around  its 
interior  were  shops  where  Armenians  were  displaying  the  goods 
of  Nijni-Novgorod — knickknacks  of  various  kinds.  Farther 
on  was  the  Rasta  Bazaar,  which  glittered  with  glass  and 
chinaware,  vases  and  lamps,  most  of  them  elaborately  deco- 
rated. There,  too,  were  dealers  in  leather,  carpets,  tea,  sugar, 
notions,  drvigs,  and  a  hundred  other  articles.  The  bazaars 
continued  on  both  sides  of  the  bridge  over  the  Kuri  Chai — a 
Rialto  without  fame — and  opened  into  the  Madan-i-Sahib-il- 
Amr.  In  this  square  or  market-place,  under  sheds  and  booths, 
meats  and  fruits  in  abundance  and  variety  were  being  sold. 
The  place  was  crowded  and  dirty.  I  retraced  my  steps  by  a 
parallel  street,  passing  row  after  row  of  shops.  My  attention 
was  especially  arrested  by  the  dallal  or  peddlers'  bazaar — a 
curiosity-shop  where  the  old  work  of  Shiraz,  Ispahan,  Kerman, 
and  Resht  was  shown.  The  exhibitions  of  Persian  goods  in- 
terested me  most,  but  imported  articles  were  largely  taking 
their  places. 

To  the  east  of  the  bazaars  are  the  pubhc  buildings.    On  one 


62  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

side  are  the  government  school,  the  post-office,  and  the  custom- 
house. On  another  side  is  the  jabah-khatia  or  armory,  a 
large  square,  surrounded  by  shops,  in  which  muskets,  swords, 
kalamdans,  and  other  articles  are  manufactured.  It  was  near 
its  entrance  that  the  Bab  was  executed.  Thielmann,  Curzon, 
and  even  Browne  make  the  mistake  of  placing  that  event  in 
the  ark.  The  Bab's  body  was  afterward  thrown  to  the  dogs 
near  the  Kheaban  gate,  whence  Hadji  Suleiman  Khan,  with 
two  other  Babis,  took  it  for  burial.  To  the  right  of  the  jabah- 
khana  are  the  royal  stables,  and  farther  on  the  arsenal  court- 
yard, where  a  few  old  cannon  and  other  arms  are  kept.  On 
the  south  of  this  courtyard  is  a  high  arched  gateway,  called  the 
Ala  Gapi  or  Sublime  Porte ;  on  the  east  is  the  crown  prince's 
prison  for  the  worst  criminals,  while  through  an  entrance  to  the 
north  is  a  court  where  the  "Takia,"  or  Persian  play  of  Muharam, 
is  acted.  Here  are  the  divan-khana  or  court-house,  the  new 
palace  of  the  prince,  and  his  anderoon^  with  extensive  flower- 
gardens  attached.  A  few  squares  beyond  is  the  Madan-i- 
Mashk,  the  soldiers'  headquarters  and  drill-ground,  with  a 
flaring  lion  and  sun  over  its  portal. 

The  most  striking  government  building  is  the  summer  pal- 
ace of  the  crown  prince.  It  is  situated  in  what  is  called  the 
Baghi  Shamal  (the  "  Northern  Garden  "),  to  the  south  of  the 
city.  This  misnomer  is  caused  by  the  garden  taking  the  place  of 
one  on  the  other  side  of  the  city.  It  is  a  park  of  one  hundred 
and  seventy  acres.  The  entrance-gate  is  a  handsome  brick 
arch,  from  which  a  long  double  avenue  leads  to  the  palace. 
Immediately  in  front  of  it  is  a  circular  fountain,  fifty  feet  in 
diameter,  in  which  swans  are  disporting.  The  reception-room, 
built  by  Abbas  Mirza,  is  a  small  saloon  adorned  with  paintings 
of  envoys  who  have  come  to  Persia,  of  Napoleon  and  other 
celebrities,  the  work  of  a  Persian  artist  who  had  studied  in 
Europe.  The  walls  and  ceilings  are  covered  with  minute 
pieces  of  mirror  wrought  into  artistic  forms.    The  large  interior 


TABRIZ,   THE  METROPOLIS  63 

court  has  a  fountain  through  its  whole  length  and  flower-beds 
on  both  sides.  At  its  farther  end  is  the  palace,  built  by  the 
present  Vali  Ahd.  It  is  a  circular  building,  with  a  marble 
fountain  in  the  center,  overlooking  which  are  five  or  six  tiers 
of  balustrades  or  galleries,  arched  over  and  crowned  with  a 
cupola.  Around  the  sides  of  the  court  are  rooms  for  the 
harem.  In  its  environment,  and  compared  with  the  city,  it 
may  be  deemed  palatial.  We  had  been  admitted  by  the 
guards,  and  on  walking  up  to  the  fountain  the  crown  prince 
unexpectedly  appeared  from  his  tent,  inquired  for  our  health 
and  of  what  nationality  we  were,  and  treated  us  most  gra- 
ciously. Usually  when  the  prince  is  resident  visitors  are  not 
admitted.  In  one  part  of  the  garden  was  a  menagerie,  which 
consisted  of  a  deer,  a  wolf,  a  stuffed  bear,  and  a  few  small 
animals. 

Another  sight  of  Tabriz  is  the  Blue  Mosque,  or  Goeg  Mes- 
jid,  which  stands  on  the  Kheaban,  It  was  built  by  Jehan 
Shah,  of  the  Black  Sheep  dynasty,  in  a.d.  1464,  though 
some — Markham,  to  wit — mistakenly  attribute  it  to  Ghazan 
Khan.  Though  ruined  by  earthquakes,  the  magnificence  of  it 
when  new  and  perfect  is  yet  evident.  "  The  Mirror  of  Cities  " 
says,  "The  like  of  it  there  was  not  on  earth."  Texier  made 
numerous  plates  of  it.  He  is  quoted  by  Curzon  as  saying  that 
"  it  is  the  chief  work  of  Persian,  perhaps  of  all  Oriental,  archi- 
tecture." It  is  an  imposing  arched  structure,  covered  inside  and 
out  with  glazed  tiles  of  various  colors — blue  and  white  pre- 
vailing— wrought  into  symmetrical  figures.  Over  the  arched 
doorway,  and  along  the  base  of  the  arches  in  the  interior, 
verses  from  the  Koran  in  arabesque  figures  are  written  in  the 
tiles.  The  dado  of  the  apse  is  composed  of  immense  slabs 
of  alabaster,  inscribed  with  verses  from  the  Koran,  and  larger 
than  any  at  present  mined  in  Persia.  As  it  is  a  Sunni  mosque, 
it  is  neglected  by  the  Shiahs.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  a  dog- 
kennel,  but  later  a  door  was  put  up.     It  is  kept  locked,  prob- 


64  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

ably  as  much  to  obtain  bakshish  from  travelers  as  for  any  other 
purpose. 

A  relic  of  still  greater  antiquity  is  the  ark  or  citadel,  a  con- 
spicuous landmark  from  every  approach  to  the  city.  It  was 
originally  built  as  a  mosque  by  Ah  Shah  Jelan,  Taj-i-Din,  a 
successor  of  Ghazan  Khan  Mongol.  Its  court  was  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  arshins  square,  and  its  porches  were  of  great  size. 
Innumerable  slabs  of  marble  were  used,  and  the  walls  were 
covered  with  kashee  or  tiles.  "  It  surpassed  in  size  all  build- 
ings in  Persia."  Through  the  court  a  watercourse  flowed, 
and  many  kinds  of  trees  grew  around  the  mosque.  In  settling, 
much  of  the  structure  fell.  The  present  ark  is  probably  a  part 
of  that  mosque.  It  is  popularly  called  Tagh-i-Ali  Shah  (the 
"Arch  of  Ali  Shah").  It  is  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
high  ;  its  walls  at  the  base  are  twenty-five  feet  thick,  and  slant- 
ing slightly  inward  as  they  ascend.  Steps  ascend  to  the  top, 
where  there  is  a  corridor  around  three  sides,  and  a  small 
room,  on  the  walls  of  which  travelers  have  registered  their 
names.  From  it  a  wide  prospect  of  the  province  is  obtained. 
Lake  Urumia  appears  as  a  streak  of  white  in  the  distance,  and 
beyond  the  Zagros  show  their  pale  outline.  One  tradition  of 
its  building  is  that  the  bricks  were  thrown  to  the  mason  on  the 
wall,  even  for  the  topmost  layers,  by  a  black  slave  of  great 
strength,  who  was  liberated  when  the  work  was  finished. 
Another  story  relates  that  an  aspiring  youth  once  climbed  to 
its  top  with  his  back  to  the  wall,  by  putting  his  fingers  into  the 
interstices  between  the  bricks,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  deed 
of  daring  by  being  promptly  executed,  on  the  ground  that  if 
he  grew  to  manhood  he  would  be  the  world's  greatest  thief. 
Casting  criminals  from  its  summit  was  once  a  mode  of  execu- 
tion, and  it  is  told  how  a  woman  was  saved  by  her  skirts  spread- 
ing and  so  sustaining  her  in  the  air  that  she  alighted  on  the 
ground  easily  and  without  injury.  In  later  times  this  structure 
was  turned  into  a  fort  and  surrounded  by  a  wall  with  bastions 


TABRIZ,  THE  METROPOLIS  65 

and  moat.  Abbas  Mirza  established  in  it  a  foundry  for  mould- 
ing cannon,  and  also  an  armory,  which  was  erected  under  the 
superintendence  of  Mr.  Armstrong,  an  Englishman. 

Tabriz  is  a  very  religious  city,  and  a  description  of  it  is  in- 
complete without  some  account  of  its  existing  mosques  and 
shrines.  It  is  said  to  have  three  hundred  and  eighteen 
mosques,  and  eight  tombs  of  imamzadas.  Most  of  the 
mosques  are  low,  with  roofs  supported  by  posts,  and  unceiled. 
One  ancient  mosque  is  the  Ustad-i-Shagird,  near  the  timber- 
market.  It  was  built  by  Amir  Sheik  Hasan  Chupani,  over 
five  hundred  years  ago.  Another  is  the  Sayid  Hamza,  built 
by  a  vizier  of  Ghazan  Khan,  who  was  executed  by  him,  and 
is  regarded  as  a  martyr  by  the  Shiahs.  Here  Kajar  princes 
and  prominent  men  are  buried.     It  is  a  sacred  refuge. 

The  two  most  important  centers  of  religious  life  are  the 
Talabiya  and  the  MagSm-i-Sahib-il-Amr.  The  Talabiya  con- 
tains a  large  theological  school  and  three  mosques.  Hadji 
Mirza  Javat  Agha,  mujtehid  of  the  Mutasharis,  has  two  of 
these,  one  for  summer  and  one  for  winter.  The  former  was 
built  by  Sultan  Ahmed  during  Osmanli  occupation.  It  is  one 
lofty  arch,  forty-four  feet  wide  and  three  hundred  feet  long, 
with  side-rooms  and  galleries  for  the  women.  Another  in  the 
same  inclosure  is  the  "  Mosque  of  Forty  Pillars,"  in  which  the 
Hujat-il-Islam  leads  prayers  for  the  sheiks.  The  capitals  of 
the  pillars  are  ornamented  with  verses  from  the  Koran,  written 
with  white  color  upon  a  dark-blue  background.  The  Magam- 
i-Sahib-il-Amr  (the  "  Palace  of  the  Master  of  the  Command- 
ment ")  is  so  called  because  the  twelfth  imam  appeared  there 
in  a  dream.  A  dome  has  been  built  over  the  place,  and  the 
stones  of  the  shrine  have  been  worn  smooth  by  the  kisses  of 
worshipers.  Around  it  are  the  Mosque  of  Sahib-il-Amr, 
which  has  two  blue  glazed  tile  minarets  and  is  in  charge  of 
the  Sigat-il-Islam,  the  school  of  the  Sadikiya,  and  the  Mosque 
and  Madressa  of  Hassan  Padishah. 


66  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

A  special  shrine  is  Ainali-Zainali.  It  is  on  the  range  of 
that  name,  just  north  of  the  city,  and  so  designated  from  two 
descendants  of  AH  who  were  wounded  in  the  Arab  conquest 
and  died  on  this  mountain.  A  visit  to  it  repays  one  with  a 
fine  view  of  the  city  and  the  plains  around.  The  people  con- 
sider a  pilgrimage  to  it  very  meritorious,  and  climb  the  steep 
hill  on  the  warmest  days  of  summer — especially  on  Fridays — 
to  obtain  the  intercession  of  the  buried  martyrs.  To  go  on 
seven  successive  Fridays  is  said  to  be  equivalent  to  a  pilgrim- 
age to  Kerbela.  When  the  Hujat-il-Islam  died  his  body  was 
borne  with  a  long  procession  to  Ainali-Zainali,  where  service 
was  held.  When  we  went  the  attendant  allowed  us  to  enter 
with  our  shoes  on,  probably  in  the  hope  of  receiving  a  larger 
fee.  The  monuments  are  rude  structures,  covered  with  green 
cloth,  the  color  which  is  sacred  to  the  sayids.  At  one  end  of 
the  shrine  is  a  pulpit  where  lamentations  for  the  dead  are  re- 
peated. On  the  walls  are  pictures  of  the  shrines  of  Kerbela 
and  Meshed. 

Let  us  now  take  a  glance  at  Persian  municipal  life.  The 
government  of  Tabriz  may  serve  as  a  sample  of  that  of  other 
cities  of  Persia.  A  provincial  or  district  governor  (hakim)  is 
ruler  in  each  city ;  but  he  is  often  transferred  from  one  place 
to  another,  and  has  few  local  attachments.  The  city  gov- 
ernment proper  consists  of  officers  who  are  rarely  changed. 
These  are  the  beglar-begi  or  mayor,  and  the  kand-khudas  or 
aldermen,  of  different  wards  of  the  city.  These  officials  are 
subject  to  removal  at  the  pleasure  of  the  king;  yet  as  they  are 
hereditary  nobles,  men  of  means,  and  steady  supporters  of  the 
throne,  they  often  hold  their  positions  through  life  and  trans- 
mit them  to  their  descendants.  They  hold  court  in  their  own 
houses,  have  their  own  prisons,  decide  cases,  and  punish  with 
fines,  the  bastinado,  or  imprisonment  in  chains.  Great  crim- 
inals are  transferred  to  the  governor- general  and  punished  by 
him.     The  salary  of  such  an  official  is  derived  from  various 


TABRIZ,  THE  METROPOLIS  67 

sources.  In  the  first  place,  the  revenue  of  some  crown  vil- 
lages is  assigned  to  him.  Then  he  receives  fines,  fees  for  cer- 
tifying deeds  and  other  documents,  ten  per  cent,  for  collect- 
ing debts,  fees  from  illegal  traffic,  such  as  liquor-selling,  with 
presents  at  festivals  and  on  various  occasions. 

One  of  the  most  influential  aldermen  of  Tabriz  was  the  Kala- 
Begi-Hadji  Agha  Khan,  who  filled  this  position  for  many 
years,  and  who  was  a  man  of  intelligence,  a  reader  of  books  not 
only  in  Persian,  but  in  Osmanli  Turkish,  and  was  specially  inter- 
ested in  all  matters  of  information  regarding  the  poHtics,  races, 
and  rehgions  of  the  world.  With  a  retentive  memory  and  a 
power  of  pleasing  conversation,  he  was  most  entertaining  and 
well  versed  in  the  traditions  and  past  associations  of  the  city. 

The  police  are  the  personal  retainers  of  the  mayor  and 
aldermen,  and  are  employed  and  dismissed  by  them  at  their 
pleasure.  They  are  cdlledfarash,  a  name  signifying  sweeper, 
which  originated  from  the  servants  who  swept  the  mosque  and 
palace  of  the  caliphs.  Each  group  is  under  the  charge  of  a  chief 
of  police.  They  receive  no  salary,  but  are  required  to  pay 
to  the  aldermen  a  certain  amount  each  month.  To  assure  a 
daily  income  to  themselves,  and  to  collect  this  extra  amount, 
they  are  alert  and  active  in  ferreting  out  offenders.  But  as 
their  object  is  to  make  the  greatest  cash  profit  out  of  every 
case,  they  are  ready  to  overlook  a  crime  for  a  liberal  dona- 
tion, or  to  torture  the  one  who  refuses  to  pay.  A  person  who 
is  falsely  accused  has  little  hope  of  easy  and  speedy  escape 
except  by  a  bribe  of  money,  unless  he  has  a  powerful  friend 
to  mediate  for  him.  Wine-sellers,  thieves,  and  lewd  men  and 
women  are  levied  upon  for  hush-money,  a  la  Tammany. 
Looties  or  rogues  often  become  policemen  or  servants  of  a 
khan,  in  order  to  be  unmolested  in  their  rascality,  as  a  noble- 
man deems  it  his  prerogative  to  protect  his  retainers.  One 
night  the  officers  of  the  mayor  arrested  twenty  thieves,  locked 
them  up,  and  threatened  to  beat  several  of  them.     The  latter 


68  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

said,  "  You  had  better  not  molest  us ;  we  are  the  prince's  ser- 
vants." The  officers  were  about  to  punish  others  of  them. 
They  said,  "  We  are  the  governor's  men."  Others  announced 
themselves  as  under  the  protection  of  the  commander  of  the 
guards.  At  one  time  looties  became  so  numerous  and  trou- 
blesome that  the  governor  put  a  price  on  each  head,  and  they 
set  to  killing  one  another  for  the  reward.  Some  of  them  even 
transgressed  so  far  as  to  pilfer  the  crown  prince's  dinner  as  it 
was  being  taken  to  his  summer  palace.  His  Highness's  indig- 
nation was  aroused,  and  the  luckless  official  who  should  have 
prevented  such  a  mishap  was  severely  bastinadoed  and  ban- 
ished from  the  city. 

Another  institution  for  the  protection  of  the  city  is  a  series 
of  guard-houses,  placed  here  and  there  through  the  streets. 
They  are  small,  filthy,  dark  rooms,  with  porches  in  front, 
where  the  guards  can  stand  or  sleep.  The  guards  are  soldiers 
detailed  in  squads  from  whatever  regiment  is  on  duty.  They 
are  poorly  clad  and  fed,  and  try  to  eke  out  a  living  by  money- 
changing  or  lending  at  usurious  interest,  and  by  levying  on  the 
loads  of  wood,  brick,  and  provisions  which  pass  by.  In  1881, 
after  the  Kurdish  raid,  the  governor  ordered  these  guard-houses 
repaired,  and  reintroduced  the  ismi-shab — the  night  watch- 
word. Every  one  found  on  the  streets  later  than  three  hoiu-s 
after  sundown  was  liable  to  arrest  and  detention  until  morn- 
ing, unless  he  could  give  the  countersign.  Those  designing 
to  be  out  later  could  procure  the  word  from  their  consul  or 
the  aldermen.  Occasionally  we  would  neglect  to  procure  the 
countersign,  and  the  guards  would  present  arms  and  block  our 
way  in  the  street  and  threaten  us  with  incarceration.  A  slight 
bakshish  would  open  the  way  as  effectually  as  the  ismi-shab. 
The  use  of  a  watchword  has  since  been  abolished. 

As  the  streets  are  not  lighted,  every  one  going  about  at 
night  carries,  or  has  carried  before  him,  a  lantern.  These  re- 
semble Chinese  lanterns,  except  that  the  "  shirt,"  as  it  is  called, 


IF 


m^^mS..    '^ 


TABRIZ,  THE  METROPOLIS  69 

is  of  oiled  muslin,  and  the  top  and  bottom  of  tinned  copper. 
They  vary  in  size  according  to  the  dignity  of  the  person.  A 
consul  or  nobleman  will  have  several  lanterns  carried  before 
him,  two  feet  in  diameter  and  three  feet  long.  The  foreigner 
and  the  well-to-do  Persian  are  content  with  one  a  foot  in  dia- 
meter, while  the  poor  have  very  small  ones. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  light  the  streets. 
When  the  shah  came  to  Tabriz,  in  1889,  an  order  was  issued 
that  every  man  should  put  a  street-lamp  before  his  door  and 
keep  it  lighted.  After  a  few  weeks  the  effort  was  abandoned 
and  darkness  prevailed  as  before. 

Street-cleaning  is  very  spasmodic.  Dust,  piles  of  rubbish, 
earth,  brick,  or  snow  fill  the  width  of  the  street  for  weeks  at 
a  time,  so  that  men  and  donkeys  must  go  over  mounds  from 
three  to  five  feet  high.  Then  a  fortunate  accident  overturns 
a  governor's  carriage,  or  a  pestilence  threatens,  and  a  peremp- 
tory order  is  issued  for  cleaning  up.  One  governor  in  Maragha 
never  went  out  riding  in  summer  without  first  sending  orders 
to  have  the  streets  along  his  course  sprinkled  and  swept. 

The  water-supply  of  cities  is  from  two  sources,  the  rivers  and 
karises.  Some  cities,  such  as  Urumia,  Khoi,  Maragha,  and 
Ispahan,  have  a  sufficient  supply  from  streams  running  by,  and 
its  distribution  is  the  only  problem.  Tabriz  and  Teheran  are 
without  abundant  water-supply.  The  river  running  by  Tabriz, 
the  Aji  Chai,  is  so  brackish  that  it  is  scarcely  suitable  even 
for  irrigation.  Two  creeks,  the  Kuri  Chai  and  Madan  Chai, 
are  completely  dried  up  in  summer  before  they  enter  the  city. 
One  reservoir,  called  Shah  Gyol,  built  by  Naib-i-Sultanah  in 
the  early  part  of  this  century,  retains  a  partial  supply  of  water 
for  summer  use ;  but  the  main  supply  comes  through  karises 
or  kanaiits,  underground  channels,  which  are  described  in  the 
chapter  on  village  life.  At  least  twenty  or  thirty  of  these 
karises  reach  the  city.  Sometimes  they  run  open  in  the 
streets,  bordered  by  trees ;  but  usually  they  are  several  feet 


70  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

below  the  surface,  in  cemented  channels  or  clay  pipes.  The 
level  of  the  yards  is  lower  than  the  streets,  that  the  water  may 
flow  over  them.  To  turn  the  water  into  a  yard  the  mirab  or 
waterman  lies  down  in  the  street,  inserts  his  arm,  and  moves 
about  the  lump  of  clay  or  clot  of  rags  which  is  used  as  a 
stopper.  When  one  place  has  been  watered  a  certain  num- 
ber of  hours,  according  to  contract,  the  stream  is  turned  to  the 
next  house,  not  to  return  for  ten  or  twenty  days,  and  some- 
times in  winter  for  several  months,  if  the  channel  is  frozen  up. 
Hence  almost  every  house  has  an  ab-amhar  or  tank  in  the 
cellar,  which  holds  from  six  hundred  to  two  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  water.  A  neighborhood  of  poor  people  have  one  in 
common,  and  it  is  considered  a  meritorious  act  for  a  rich  man 
to  build  public  tanks  for  them.  The  water  in  these  tanks 
often  becomes  putrid,  not  only  from  long  stagnation,  but  be- 
cause clothes  are  washed  in  the  open  waterways,  and  a  good 
deal  of  surface  filth  flows  into  them,  as  the  city  has  no  system 
of  drainage.  Only  a  marvelous  natural  chmate  prevents  an 
excessive  mortahty  from  this  impure  water-supply. 


CHAPTER    IV 

MARAGHA,  THE   SEAT  OF  THE  MONGOLS 

ONE  of  the  cities  of  Azerbijan,  of  medieval  fame,  is  Mar- 
agha,  once  a  capital  of  the  Mongols.  It  is  situated 
thirty-five  miles  southwest  of  Tabriz,  and  in  midsummer  is  ac- 
cessible by  a  road  over  the  snowy  Sahend ;  but  at  other  times 
a  circuit  of  the  mountains  is  necessary,  by  the  shore  of  Lake 
Urumia,  making  the  distance  eighty  miles. 

As  we  rode  out  of  Tabriz  it  may  have  seemed  as  if,  hke  the 
Israelites,  we  had  borrowed  of  our  neighbors,  from  the  volume 
and  bulk  of  our  baggage.  If  we  could  have  done  without 
eating  and  sleeping  we  might  have  dispensed  with  traveling- 
beds,  galvanized  plates,  cooking-utensils,  and  the  cook ;  but 
we  found  it  true  that  "sound  sleep  at  night  made  the  day 
bright,  and  good  food  made  a  merry  mood."  The  beggars 
evidently  thought  that  our  train  needed  a  blessing,  for  they 
followed  us  with  persistent  beseechings  for  alms.  How  could 
we  refuse  ?  Would  not  our  journey  be  a  failure  unless  we 
obtained  favor  by  a  safety-offering?  We  thought  the  exertion 
of  getting  the  charvadar  or  muleteer  was  enough,  without 
having  to  wait  hungry  for  the  arrival  of  the  horses  in  the  even- 
ing. If  you  read  of  the  fleet  Arabian  steed  and  the  strong 
and  fiery  Turkoman,  beheve  it ;  but  do  not  imagine  the  com- 
mon horse  of  Persia  is  of  any  such  stock.  His  market-value 
is  appraised  at  from  four  to  thirty  dollars.  Among  Persian 
steeds  the  charvadar  horses  carry  off  the  prize,  for  a  more 
balky,  bony,  bruised,  sore-backed,  stumbling  set  was  never 

71 


72  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

seen.  Our  original  equipment  of  them  had  to  be  dismissed  at 
the  first  station. 

We  lodged  at  Sardarud,  a  village  of  some  note  in  connec- 
tion with  the  holy  wars  of  Islam.  Fallen  battlements  and 
other  ruins  are  yet  to  be  seen  about  the  place.  Passing  into 
a  caravansary,  we  found  ourselves  surrounded  by  quadrupeds 
of  numberless  sorts,  and  all  the  arrangements  for  their  accom- 
modation. Above,  however,  were  small  balakha7ias  *  or  upper 
rooms,  with  gray  mud-walls  and  an  entire  absence  of  furni- 
ture. A  few  strips  of  carpet  were  hastily  spread,  the  oiled- 
paper  windows  thrown  open,  and  we  were  soon  comfortable. 

The  road  during  the  next  day  had  little  to  interest  one. 
Numerous  caravans  of  camels  met  us,  loaded  with  the  products 
of  Kurdistan,  the  animals  trudging  along  single  file,  chained 
to  one  another,  the  drivers  sprawling  on  the  camels'  backs,  doz- 
ing away,  reclining  in  all  sorts  of  comical  and  ridiculous  pos- 
tures, their  heads  dangling  in  the  air,  their  feet  keeping  time 
to  the  slow  and  solemn  procession.  Though  our  course  was 
over  a  sandy  plain,  splendid  mountains  were  continually  in 
sight — on  the  one  side  Sahend,  on  the  other  Shahi,  and,  be- 
yond Lake  Urumia,  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  the  home  of 
the  untamed  Chief  Josephs  and  Captain  Jacks  of  Asia.  Soon 
rounding  the  "  nose  "  of  the  mountain,  the  lake  itself  came  in 
view,  and  later  the  plain  of  Goigan,  separated  by  a  slight  rise 
from  that  of  Ducargan.  Ducargan  is  the  seat  of  the  district 
governor,  who  has  a  difficult  time  of  it  with  the  turbulent 
population.  Goigan  contains  the  telegraph  station  and  post- 
office.  The  two  towns  have  a  population  of  ten  to  fifteen  thou- 
sand. This  was  one  of  the  pleasantest  pictures  I  had  yet  seen 
in  Persia.  In  the  autumn  everything  presented  a  parched, 
dreary  appearance.  Winter  but  added  to  the  barrenness  of  the 
landscape.  In  contrast  with  the  winter  desolation,  nature,  in 
her  festive  attire,  looked  charming,  and  her  spring  suit  was 

*  From  this  term  our  word  "  balcony"  is  derived. 


MARAGHA,  THE  SEAT  OF   THE  MONGOLS  73 

most  becoming.  There  were  midulating  fields  covered  with  the 
sprouting  grain,  wide  stretches  of  orchards  and  gardens  bud- 
ding heavily,  the  almond  and  apricot  blossoms  with  their  deli- 
cate tints  showing  full  on  the  background  of  green,  while 
Goigan  and  Ducargan  were  almost  hidden  beneath  the  foli- 
age ;  the  river,  swollen  by  the  melting  snows,  rushing  along  like 
a  torrent,  with  its  overflowing  stream  refreshing  the  fields 
through  a  thousand  willow  and  poplar  bordered  watercourses. 
Only  an  inhabitant  of  the  East  can  appreciate  the  epithet 
"  well-watered,"  as  it  was  applied  to  the  goodly  land  of  Israel, 

In  the  market-place  we  were  for  the  time  being  the  center 
of  an  intensely  interested  group.  Our  spectacles,  our  hats,  and 
a  score  of  things  about  us  excited  remark,  frequently  laughter, 
though  rarely  admiration.  Ducargan  has  an  Armenian  church, 
a  relic  of  the  Armenians  whom  the  fanaticism  of  the  people  had 
forced  to  abandon  their  homes.  The  glebes  are  still  a  source 
of  revenue  to  the  Tabriz  priests. 

The  next  morning,  on  pursuing  our  journey,  the  character 
of  the  landscape  changed.  We  passed  through  a  rough  and 
mountainous  region,  at  times  on  a  mere  beaten  path,  and 
through  defiles  infested  with  robbers.  Whether  robbers  always 
infest  places  near  good  springs,  or  the  guards  have  found  it 
convenient  to  give  it  out  that  they  do  so,  it  is  difficult  precisely 
to  say ;  at  all  events,  the  latter  are  usually  to  be  found  at  such 
places  waiting  for  their  anams.  Some  travelers,  indeed,  hold 
that  the  terms  "  robber  "  and  "  guard  "  are  interchangeable. 

Geologically  the  region  is  intensely  interesting.  Sulphur- 
springs  deposit  their  incrustations  on  the  hillsides ;  layers  of 
limestone  and  marble  form  the  paving  of  the  highway.  The 
tramping  of  the  horses'  hoofs  gave  back  a  hollow  echo.  For 
half  a  mile  we  seemed  to  be  treading  over  the  roofs  of  cav- 
erns. Our  imagination  pictured  subterranean  halls,  adorned 
with  pendent  stalactites,  and  having  winding  labyrinths,  intri- 
cate and  endless.    Soon  we  reached  a  point  where  we  had  an 


74  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

opportunity  of  entering  these  caves.  There  were  sev^eral 
stories  of  them,  each  about  twenty  feet  high,  opening  one 
above  the  other  on  the  hillside.  The  first  was  used  for  stables 
and  sheepfolds,  with  mangers  cut  into  the  rocks,  reminding 
one  of  the  story  of  Bethlehem.  The  next  had  several  large 
divisions,  inhabited  by  birds.  On  the  :'aulted  roofs  and  sides 
were  many  curious  formations,  caused  by  the  oozing  of  the 
mineral  water  through  the  porous  rock.  The  third  was  held 
in  dread  by  the  natives,  being  a  den  of  monstrous  snakes. 
Only  the  terror  awakened  by  the  approach  of  the  Balbas,  as 
they  called  the  Kiu-ds,  pointing  wath  a  frenzy  of  fear  to  their 
distant  mountains,  had  led  them  to  conceal  their  household 
gods  and  other  treasure  in  the  depths  of  these  caves. 

Near  by  the  caves  are  some  quarries  of  famous  alabaster, 
fine  specimens  of  which  are  conspicuous  in  the  Blue  Mosque 
at  Tabriz.  It  is  cream-colored,  finely  veined,  and  prettily 
spotted  with  red  and  other  hues.  It  is  translucent,  and  is 
used  for  skylights  of  baths  and  street-windows.  The  thickest 
layers  are  eight  inches.  The  sayid,  who  has  the  monopoly  of 
the  mines,  helped  us  to  select  specimens.  He  has  a  shop  in 
Tabriz  for  making  tombstones.  Several  workmen  were  chisel- 
ing away  after  a  primitive  manner.  The  marble  is  used  for 
lithographic  pvuposes,  but  the  difficulty  and  cost  of  transporta- 
tion interfere  with  its  general  use  for  buildings.  It  was  taken 
as  far  as  Samarcand  by  Genghis  Khan,  and  to  Ispahan  for  the 
Safavean  palaces ;  Nadir  Shah  also  took  immense  quantities 
of  it  to  ornament  his  palaces  at  Kelat  and  Meshed.  In  1894 
I  sent  some  samples  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  alabaster  or  onyx-marble  is  continually  being  formed. 
Here  and  there  mineral  springs  come  gushing  forth.  The 
water  flows  but  a  few  rods,  when  by  exposure  to  the  air  the 
mineral  deposit  settles,  and  becomes  stone  before  one's 
eyes.  Alongside  one  of  the  springs  we  lunched,  and  drank  of 
the  foaming,  bubbUng  stream.     It  seemed  to  contain  salts. 


MARAGH/1,  THE  SEAT  OF   THE  MONGOLS  75 

lime,  soda,  iron,  and  carbonic-acid  gas.  It  was  moderately 
cool  and  pleasant  to  the  taste.  The  near  village  of  Dashkasan 
uses  the  mineral  water  constantly,  and  regards  it  as  very  health- 
ful. Around  us  here  were  many  sweet  and  delicate  flowers, 
and  in  front  a  green  and  fruitful  plain,  leading  down  to  the  lake. 

For  a  good  part  of  that  day  the  lake  continued  in  view. 
A  beautiful  mirage  produced  the  effect  of  an  extension  of 
the  lake.  The  impression  was  so  vivid,  so  true  to  nature,  the 
water  seeming  to  dance  in  the  sun,  obscuring  the  real  shore 
and  producing  such  an  artificial  semblance  of  it,  that  only  posi- 
tive knowledge  prevented  the  jury  of  our  senses  from  deciding 
in  favor  of  its  reality.  Nature  had  conspired  to  remind  us  that 
it  was  the  day  for  April  fools.  The  natives  living  in  sight  of 
the  place  declared  it  to  be  the  lake.  At  our  last  glimpse  of 
it,  as  we  passed  over  the  defiles,  it  had  broadened  and  spread 
until  it  apparently  covered  the  whole  plateau  with  a  glassy 
sheet  of  water,  immersing  the  villages  and  plain  through  which 
we  had  passed  but  a  few  hours  before. 

Night  found  us  at  Ajab  Shahr  ("  Wonderful  City  "),  so  named 
by  a  Tabriz  man  who  receives  the  revenue  of  the  town  for  his 
salary.  Among  our  visitors  was  a  dervish.  His  long,  curly 
black  locks  and  robe  of  untanned  kidskin,  with  the  hoofs 
dangling  at  his  sides,  made  a  striking  picture.  If  salvation 
could  come  by  mortification  of  the  flesh,  surely  he  would  earn 
it !  "What,"  said  he,  "can  be  worse  than  my  condition?  I 
am  homeless  and  a  wanderer ;  I  abandon  my  body  a  prey  to 
filth  and  a  habitation  for  vermin,  giving  it  up  to  the  gnawings 
of  hunger  and  the  biting  of  fierce,  cold  winds.  Surely  my  flesh 
will  one  day  be  conquered,  and  my  spirit  be  free  to  rise  and 
dwell  where  I  long  to  be."  In  the  winter  he  eats  opium,  be- 
numbing himself  to  the  exposure  and  neglect. 

On  leaving  Ajab  Shahr  we  noticed  a  man  lying  by  the  road- 
side. It  was  said  that  he  had  died  of  starvation,  and  the  on- 
lookers asked  money  to  bury  him.     On  the  supposition  that 


76  PERSIAN  LIFE   AND   CUSTOMS 

the  story  was  true,  some  money  was  given  them,  but  Hkely 
enough  it  was  a  hoax. 

Our  next  day  brought  us  to  the  region  desolated  by  the 
Kurds.  The  deserted  villages  and  blackened  walls  enabled 
us  to  conceive  of  the  ruthless  completeness  of  their  ravages. 
So  entirely  had  the  "terror  of  the  Canaanites  "  fallen  upon 
the  inhabitants  that  our  coming  created  considerable  anxiety 
among  them.  The  villagers  of  Dush,  who  had  returned  from 
their  retreat  in  the  mountains,  plied  us  with  no  end  of  ques- 
tions. They  watched  us  with  fear,  as  they  might  a  band  of 
gipsies,  whom  we  partly  resembled,  as  we  tied  our  horses  to 
the  trees  and  sat  down  on  the  grassy  bank  to  our  lunch.  A 
short  afternoon's  ride  brought  us  to  our  destination,  the 
ancient  city  of  Maragha. 

Maragha  is  situated  about  ten  miles  from  Lake  Urumia,  at 
the  head  of  the  plain  which  slopes  down  to  the  lake.  The 
plain,  watered  by  the  Sufi  River,  is  fertile  and  populous.  The 
valley,  with  its  indented  border  of  hills,  resembles  a  scorpion. 
The  city  has  a  reputation  for  being  beautiful ;  but  either  our 
eyes  were  blinded  or  the  season  was  unpropitious,  for  it  did 
not  impress  us  as  such.  The  broad  river-banks,  covered  with 
willow  and  sycamore  trees,  have  a  pleasing  park-like  appear- 
ance, suited  to  make  them  a  summer  rendezvous  for  the  tea- 
loving  inhabitants.  A  wall,  twenty  feet  high — repaired  in  an- 
ticipation of  an  attack  from  the  Kurds — with  ponderous  gates 
sheeted  with  iron,  gives  it  an  ancient  appearance. 

Filth  was  obtrusively  apparent.  In  the  course  of  a  walk 
one  day,  we  took  the  trouble  to  notice  all  the  extraneous 
matter  in  a  principal  street,  and  obtained  a  surprising  cata- 
logue :  strings  and  rags  of  all  colors  and  sizes ;  pieces  of  pot- 
tery, glass,  and  carpet ;  ashes,  wood,  refuse,  and  offal ;  loose 
stones  and  boulders  of  millstone  size ;  gravestones ;  bones, 
carcasses,  and  skeletons  of  animals ;  with  dogs,  men,  women, 
and  children  lying  prostrate  and  almost  naked  amid  the  filth. 


MARAGHA,  THE  SEAT  OF   THE  MONGOLS  77 

It  may  not  be  elegant  to  particularize  so  about  the  filth  of  an 
Oriental  city,  but  it  will  not  look  blacker  in  printers'  ink  than 
it  did  in  reality. 

Maragha  has  its  glory  from  a  former  epoch,  and  the  relics 
remaining  from  that  time  claim  our  interest.  In  the  thir- 
teenth century  Hulaku  Khan,  the  grandson  of  Genghis  Khan, 
issued  from  Tartary,  exterminated  the  Assassins,  overthrew  the 
caliphs  of  Bagdad,  and  finally  settled  down  as  a  civilized  and 
enlightened  monarch.  He  is  said  to  have  chosen  Maragha 
for  his  capital  because  the  scorpion  shape  of  the  valley  was  a 
propitious  omen.  He  and  his  Christian  queen  gathered  around 
them  the  philosophers,  poets,  and  wise  men  of  the  age.  He 
was  the  special  patron  of  Nasir-i-Din,  the  celebrated  astron- 
omer, whose  "  Tables  of  the  Ilkhany  "  remain  as  a  lasting  contri- 
bution to  science.  The  crown  of  the  hill  near  the  city  was 
leveled  for  his  observatory,  and  the  foundations  of  it  still  re- 
main. He  is  also  said  to  have  had  a  deep  hole  dug  in  the 
ground,  from  which  in  daytime  he  could  observe  the  stars. 

We  very  much  enjoyed  the  examination  of  the  remains  of 
Mongol  supremacy.  The  architecture  was  of  that  solid  kind 
which  seems  to  have  been  long  abandoned,  if  not  a  lost  art — 
well-burnt  brick,  huge  stones,  firmly  set  arches,  and  colored 
tihng  of  great  beauty.  Nothing  new  has  any  probability  of 
being  preserved  as  long  as  these  have  been.  Two  of  these 
ancient  structures  are  the  tower-tombs  of  Hulaku  and  his 
queen.  In  the  form  of  decagons,  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter, 
they  rise  to  the  height  of  seventy  feet,  surmounted  by  domes. 
The  tower  of  the  king  is  ornamented  with  blue,  green,  and 
black  tiling  in  mosaic,  and  with  arabesque  inscriptions.  The 
coloring  remains  as  perfect  as  it  was  seven  centuries  ago,  and 
the  surface  is  as  smooth  and  glossy.  The  interior  is  unorna- 
mented,  save  by  a  marble  slab,  in  the  shape  of  a  Grecian 
shield,  inscribed  on  the  under  side.  The  tower  is  occupied  as 
a  stable.     The  storks'  nests  on  the  top  of  the  dome  are  prob- 


78  PERSIAN    LIFE   /1ND   CUSTOMS 

ably  more  valued  now,  as  omens  of  good  luck  to  the  city,  than 
tlie  towers  themselves.  There  are  several  other  monuments  of 
the  same  style  and  age  in  the  city.  One,  with  a  remarkable 
arched  foundation,  was  evidently  a  fort.  Some  of  the  cut 
stones  are  fourteen  feet  long.  Nasir-i-Din,  the  astronomer,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  architect  of  these  various  structures. 

The  designation  Mar-Agha,  the  name  of  a  bishop  among 
the  Nestorians,  bespeaks  a  more  ancient  period  of  Christian  in- 
fluence in  the  place.  A  rock-hewn  hermitage  in  the  hill  over- 
looking the  city  was,  according  to  Mussulman  and  Christian 
tradition,  the  dwelling  of  Christian  monks.  Ker  Porter  sup- 
posed that  it  belonged  to  the  fire-worshipers.  The  Nestorians 
claim  that  it  was  theirs.  We  learned  from  other  sources  that 
the  Nestorians  had  a  school  in  Maragha  before  the  time  of 
Tamerlane.*  I  explored  one  of  the  largest  of  these  rock- 
hewn  abodes.  The  first  room  was  about  forty  feet  by  fifteen. 
At  one  end  was  a  rock  platform,  and  on  it  a  large  altar,  carved 
out  of  the  everlasting  hills.  This  was  evidently  the  chapel  of 
the  hermitage.  At  the  side  of  the  chapel  were  various  rooms, 
and  from  some  of  them  underground  ways  led  into  cells. 
Through  one  of  these  passages,  winding  downward  to  a  dis- 
tance of  sixty  feet,  I  crept  on  my  hands  and  knees.  It  opened 
into  a  small  chamber,  doubtless  a  place  of  solitary  meditation 
for  the  old  monks. 

In  the  mountains  beyond  Maragha  are  found  the  remains 
of  animals  of  remote  geological  ages.  Immense  skeletons 
have  been  excavated,  and  an  Austrian  scientist  has  exported  a 
large  quantity  of  these  remains.  A  false  report,  however,  at 
the  Khoi  custom-house,  that  the  cases  were  full  of  gold-dust, 
led  to  their  detention,  and  further  export  was  prohibited. 
Near  Maragha  are  caves  which  none  can  enter  on  account  of 
poisonous  gas.  There  are  also  iron  springs.  One  of  these 
springs  is  called  the  ox-head.  The  water  is  blood-red,  and 
*  Anderson,  "  Oriental  Missions,"  vol.  i.,  p.  1 68,  note. 


MARAGHA,  THE  SEAT  OF   THE  MONGOLS  79 

comes  gurgling  out  with  puffs  of  gas,  with  a  sound  resembling, 
as  the  natives  say,  the  blood  flowing  from  a  decapitated  ox. 
The  rocks  are  in  layers  like  a  pile  of  native  bread.  A  folk- 
tale relates  that  once  there  was  a  wedding-party  sacrificing  an 
ox  and  making  preparations  for  a  feast,  when  an  enemy  came 
upon  them  and  cursed  them,  so  that  the  baked  meats  of  the 
festival  were  turned  into  stone.  The  petrified  bread,  there- 
fore, remains  uneaten,  and  the  blood  of  the  ox  still  continues 
to  flow. 

Maragha  has  now  a  population  of  twenty  thousand,  with  one 
hundred  and  fifty  famihes  of  Armenians.  Its  greatest  trade  is 
in  raisins.  The  district  abounds  in  vineyards ;  but  though  the 
grapes  are  superior,  httle  wine  is  made.  Grape-molasses  is 
manufactured  in  considerable  quantity,  but  the  chief  product 
of  the  vineyard  consists  of  raisins.  From  the  Urumia,  Ducar- 
gan,  and  Maragha  regions  nine  hundred  and  ninety  tons  of 
raisins  were  exported  via  Astara  in  1894.  They  were  sent  by 
caravan  on  fifty-four  thousand  animals.  All  the  boxes  were 
made  by  hand,  and  gave  employment  for  fourteen  thousand 
days  to  carpenters.  The  raisins  are  of  two  kinds — the  kish- 
mish  and  the  sabza.  The  kishmish  are  dried  by  being  placed 
in  the  sun,  frequently  on  a  plastered  surface  on  the  hillside. 
The  sabza  are  dipped  in  a  kettle  of  boiling  lye-water,  made 
from  the  ashes  of  a  thorn-bush  or  of  the  vine.  They  are  laid 
on  the  ground  to  dry  for  a  week.  All  of  them  fall  from  their 
stems.  The  best  kind  is  from  the  seedless  grape.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  watch  the  packing  process :  the  cleaning,  sifting, 
pressing  into  boxes  by  stamping  them  with  the  bare  feet,  and 
the  covering  of  the  boxes  with  sheepskin  to  protect  the  fruit 
from  the  rain. 

In  Maragha  we  called  on  the  chief  mujtehids,  two  tall  and 
jovial  brothers,  whose  long  robes  and  immense  white  turbans 
became  them  greatly.  Their  reception-room  was  crowded 
with  those  who  had  come  to  catch  words  of  wisdom.     After 


80  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

discussing  the  Trinity,  the  subject  was  turned  to  the  nature 
and  origin  of  Christ's  spirit.  One  claimed  that  Jesus  was  a 
creature,  and  therefore  it  is  a  sin  to  worship  him ;  another 
affirmed  that  in  his  preexistence  he  was  in  no  whit  superior,  for 
all  spirit  is  eternal ;  another  advanced  the  idea  that  Moses, 
Christ,  and  Mohammed  were  all  manifestations  of  the  same 
spirit ;  while  still  another  asserted  that  there  is  no  creature,  but 
all  is  creator. 

When  we  desired  to  return  from  Maragha  we  were  made  ac- 
quainted with  an  interesting  Persian  custom.  All  the  district 
governors  had  been  summoned  to  a  grand  council  at  Tabriz. 
For  the  large  retinue  of  the  governor  many  horses  were  neces- 
sary. According  to  custom,  he  sent  an  order  levying  on  every 
available  liveryman  and  stable-keeper.  It  so  happened  that  his 
draft  of  one  hundred  horses  included  those  we  had  engaged. 
When  requested,  the  governor  pohtely  released  them ;  but  we 
found  that  after  all  they  were  of  no  use,  and  we  sent  to  another 
city  for  horses.  When  we  arrived  near  Tabriz  we  found  the 
governor  waiting.  He  had  sent  forward  word,  and  was  tarry- 
ing until  a  procession  proportionate  to  his  rank  should  be 
sent  to  meet  him. 


CHAPTER  V 

A    CIRCUIT    OF    LAKE    URUMIA 

THE  basin  of  Lake  Urumia  is  the  most  populous  and 
best-cultivated  region  in  Persia.  It  drains  twenty-one 
thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  square  miles.  The  lake  was 
anciently  known  as  Lake  Matiana,  and  in  Armenia  as  Kabuta 
(the  "  Blue  Sea  ") ;  but  it  is  now  called  the  Sea  of  Shaki  or 
Urumia.  It  is  forty-three  hundred  and  twenty  feet  above 
the  sea-level,  extends  eighty  miles  from  north  to  south,  aver- 
ages twenty-five  miles  in  wid  h,  and  has  a  surface  of  fifteen 
hundred  square  miles.  It  has  no  outlet ;  is  intensely  salt, 
dense,  and  heavy.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  water  is  11.55. 
It  is  strongly  impregnated  with  sulphureted  hydrogen.  A 
swimmer  floats  upon  it  without  effort.  The  brine  forms  a 
coating  on  the  skin,  and,  if  the  bather  is  not  careful,  gives  in- 
tense pain  to  the  eyes.  Its  average  depth  is  from  twelve  to 
sixteen  feet ;  its  greatest  depth  forty-six  feet.  The  northern 
part  is  very  shallow,  and  is  becoming  shallower  year  by  year. 
A  tradition  among  the  Nestorians  narrates  that  the  Apostle 
Thomas,  when  departing  for  India,  crossed  the  lake,  walking 
on  the  water.  In  commemoration  of  this  event  they  keep  a 
festival  day,  on  which  they  go  to  bathe  in  the  lake.  Some 
small  islands  are  situated  in  its  midst,  on  which  game  and  sea- 
gulls are  found ;  but  in  the  lake  itself  there  is  no  life. 

The  privilege  of  navigating  the  lake  is  granted  by  the  gov- 
ernment as  a  monopoly  to  Prince  Iman  Guli  Mirza  for  one 
thousand  tomans  a  year.    His  father,  Melek  Kazim  Mirza,  pro- 

81 


82  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

cured  a  small  steamer  for  it,  but  it  soon  got  out  of  order.  An- 
other nobleman  had  some  vessels  built  to  engage  in  the  trade ; 
but  the  holder  of  the  monopoly  made  good  his  right,  and  the 
vessels  rotted  unused.  Dr.  Lobdell  and  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Cochran, 
M.D.,  visited  Melek  Kazim  Mirza  at  Shishevan,  and  embarked 
in  the  private  sail-boat  of  the  prince  to  go  to  Urumia.  Its  cabin 
was  quite  sumptuously  furnished.  On  the  third  day  out  they 
were  becalmed.  They  cast  anchor  at  an  uninhabited  island 
and  resorted  to  a  boat  with  oars.  They  were  overtaken  by  a 
storm,  which  dashed  the  waves  into  the  boat.  Drenched  by 
the  briny  water,  and  bailing  the  boat  with  the  energy  of  de- 
spair, they  momentarily  expected  to  be  submerged.  Finally 
they  were  driven  ashore  twenty  miles  below  the  harbor.  Car- 
goes in  flat  sail-boats,  manned  by  a  dozen  men,  are  now  often 
delayed  for  days  by  contrary  winds.  With  a  small  steamer  the 
city  of  Urumia  could  be  reached  from  Tabriz  in  a  day  or  two, 
while  the  journey  around  the  lake  on  horseback  requires  five 
or  six  days.  An  American  gentleman  offered,  through  Dr. 
Cochran,  to  provide  a  steamer  for  its  traffic,  but  the  business 
could  not  be  arranged.  Traffic  in  passengers,  grain,  raisins, 
and  general  merchandise  would  make  such  an  enterprise 
profitable.  Some  Europeans  in  Teheran,  it  is  said,  purpose, 
sooner  or  later,  to  acquire  the  concession. 

The  journey  around  Lake  Urumia  is  one  which  few  travel- 
ers make,  yet  it  leads  through  some  of  the  pleasantest  regions 
of  Persia.  In  going  northward  one  sets  out  over  the  great 
caravan  route  from  Tabriz  to  Trebizond.  The  telegraph  and 
post  routes  go  to  Marend,  thence  over  the  mountains  to  Khoi. 
The  caravan  route  lies  over  the  Myan  plain — the  difficult  part 
of  the  journey.  In  spring  it  is  muddy  and  slippery  ;  in  winter 
it  is  flooded  over  and  frozen,  with  a  deep  covering  of  snow. 
The  ice  breaks  under  the  horses'  hoofs.  The  sky  is  sometimes 
cloudy,  and  the  cold  penetrates  even  through  an  overcoat  and  a 
Persian  aba.     Often,  too,  the  river  is  impassable.     In  summer 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  83 

the  heat  and  glare  of  the  sun  are  reflected  from  the  gh'stening 
sandj  and  make  it  extremely  uncomfortable  for  the  traveler. 
For  hours  of  the  journey,  moreover,  only  brackish  water  can 
be  obtained.  No  place  shows  better  than  this  the  contrast  be- 
tween summer  and  winter  in  Azerbijan. 

The  first  station  is  Ah  Shah.  Here  we  lodged  in  the  house 
of  the  Rev.  Samuel  A.  Rhea  and  were  shown  the  room  to  which 
he  was  borne  in  a  dying  condition  twenty-five  years  before. 
After  leaving  the  village  we  passed  through  the  fertile  district 
of  Guneh,  having  in  view  all  the  while  the  blue  waters  of  the 
lake,  and  finding  fanciful  resemblances  in  its  islands  to  reclin- 
ing calves  and  baby  elephants.  On  the  third  day  we  crossed 
the  Pass  of  Sayid-Taj-i-Din.  It  is  steep  and  rocky,  and  the 
road  bears  the  marks  of  so  energetic  a  hand  that  one  is  led  to 
suspect  the  work  of  the  Roman.  For  a  long  distance  a  path 
has  been  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  there  the  horse  must  walk 
with  wary  foot.  From  the  other  side  the  Khoi  plain  opened 
up  before  us.  It  is  well  watered  by  the  Kutur  and  Aland  rivers, 
both  of  which  rise  on  the  Turkish  border  and,  uniting,  flow 
into  the  Aras.  The  approach  to  the  city  is  through  a  wide 
avenue,  two  miles  in  length,  bordered  by  watercourses  and 
double  rows  of  willows,  fenceless  gardens  extending  on  both 
sides.  At  its  farther  end  the  walls  and  battlements  of  the  city 
frown  upon  us.  A  double  wall,  with  towers  (having  picket- 
holes  for  cannon  and  musketry),  eleven  feet  thick,  built  of  sun- 
dried  brick,  and  encircled  by  a  moat  twenty  feet  deep,  surrounds 
the  city.  Five  large  and  ponderous  gates  of  wood,  sheeted  with 
iron,  lead  out  to  the  chief  highways.  Across  the  moat  are 
slight  bridges,  easily  removed  on  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 
It  is  a  frontier  fortress,  but  the  time  is  long  past  when  such 
breastworks  could  withstand  the  cannon  of  either  Russia  or 
Turkey.  Against  Kurds,  however,  the  fortress  would  still  af- 
ford protection.  Many  of  the  streets  of  the  city  are  of  unusual 
width  for  the  Orient,  with  rows  of  trees  and  running  water  in 


84  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

the  center.  Low  garden  walls  give  glimpses  of  the  interior. 
The  bazaars  are  poor,  though  caravansaries  are  numerous. 
There  are  several  noted  mosques  and  an  armory.  Consider- 
able copperware  is  manufactured  in  the  town.  The  population 
of  twenty  thousand  within  the  walls  is  entirely  Mussulman. 
The  latter  were  formerly  noted  for  their  bigotry,  but  of  late 
they  have  become  much  freer  from  prejudice.  Sects  abound. 
A  curious  illustration  of  perversion  was  lately  exhibited.  A 
number  of  Mussulmans,  taught  by  a  cobbler  who  is  a  disciple 
of  a  strolling  dervish,  had  adopted  a  Hindu  Pantheism,  and, 
holding  that  the  divine  Spirit  only  exists  as  manifested  in 
man,  deny  all  responsibility  for  sin. 

Mussulman  superstition  in  Khoi  is  in  no  way  more  strikingly 
manifested  than  in  the  reverence  shown  to  the  mosque  over  the 
tomb  of  the  Hadji  Mir  Yacob.  This  man,  a  descendant  of  the 
Prophet,  was  a  meek  villager,  to  whom  doors  were  supposed  to 
open  of  their  own  accord,  and  by  whose  blessing  bandages 
received  power  to  dispel  fever.  When  he  died,  not  in  the 
olden  times  of  legend,  but  just  forty  years  ago,  they  erected  a 
mosque  on  his  grave,  which  has  become  a  shrine  and  a  refuge. 
I  was  permitted  to  look  into  the  interior.  The  mausoleum  was 
decorated  with  shawls,  embroideries,  mirrors,  chandeliers,  and 
other  offerings  of  the  faithful.  The  sick  are  brought  and  laid 
within  its  precincts  for  the  operation  of  the  faith-cure.  A 
hundred  swords  and  dirks  were  hung  around,  consecrated  by 
criminals  fleeing  to  the  shrine  with  vows  of  repentance.  The 
governor,  however,  noticed  that  it  was  only  discovered  crim- 
inals who  professed  repentance,  so  he  abolished  its  privilege 
as  a  sanctuary.  Here,  they  say,  the  Imam  Husain  mani- 
fested himself  when  the  Turks  forbade  access  to  Kerbela.  A 
deformed  and  lame  boy  was  healed,  though  unbelievers  say 
there  was  a  collusion  between  a  surgeon  and  the  mollas.  Once 
a  camel,  mistaking  it  for  a  caravansary,  entered  the  place. 
The  faithful  immediately  exclaimed,  "Even  the  dumb  beast 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  85 

recognizes  the  presence  of  the  Prophet  ! "  Decked  in  gor- 
geous array,  they  paraded  it  through  the  streets,  each  one 
taking  some  of  the  hair  of  the  animal  as  a  blessed  talisman. 
The  camel  became  an  attache  of  the  mosque. 

At  Khoi  there  is  a  curious  structure  called  the  Tower  of  Shan 
Ismiel,  he  who  fought  with  Sultan  Sehm  I.  on  this  historic  plain 
in  1 5 14.  The  tower  is  circular,  and  is  about  sixty  feet  high, 
with  innumerable  horns  of  wild  goats  worked  into  the  masonry, 
the  points  projecting  outward.  Some  say  that  the  horns  were 
the  spoils  of  one  day's  hunting  by  the  royal  party.  This  story 
not  being  marvelous  enough,  another  has  been  invented  to  the 
effect  that  a  holy  man  from  Tabriz,  a  miracle-worker,  called 
all  the  gazelles  together  from  the  country  round  about.  These 
were  slain  and  consumed  in  a  single  feast,  and  the  horns  were 
then  built  into  a  tower  as  a  memorial. 

The  Armenians  of  Khoi  hve  in  three  wards  outside  of  the 
walls  and  in  the  surrounding  villages.  They  are  shopkeepers, 
farmers,  and  carpenters.  They  are  linancially  prosperous,  but 
intellectually  and  spiritually  destitute.  The  church  is  said  to 
be  six  hundred  years  old.  The  windows  are  very  high  up  and 
small,  like  port-holes.  In  one  corner  is  a  small  stone  basin  for 
the  immersion  of  infants.  One  of  the  pictures  is  of  Constan- 
tine  and  Helena,  with  Greek  inscriptions.  Another  Armenian 
church  stands  in  a  Mohammedan  village.  Many  sick  ones  are 
brought  to  its  shrine,  and  for  two  days  in  the  year  pilgrimages 
are  made  to  it  from  the  Armenian  villages.  Superstition  pre- 
serves the  church  from  destruction.  One  Mohammedan  took 
a  stone  from  it  for  his  stable.  The  same  day  he  ran  the  tongs 
into  his  eye.  He  brought  back  the  stone  and  made  an  offer- 
ing to  the  offended  saint. 

From  Khoi  northward  to  Maku  is  about  seventy  miles. 
The  district  is  mountainous.  Much  of  it  is  datiie,  that  is,  not 
artificially  irrigated.  Its  inhabitants  are  of  the  tribe  of  Kara- 
Goyunlis,  or  the  "  Black  Sheep,"  who  once  ruled  Azerbijan. 


86  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

Most  of  them  are  Ali-Allahis,  If  our  experience  is  a  criterion, 
they  are  very  quarrelsome.  The  family  with  whom  we  lodged 
at  Kasian  had  a  free  fight,  in  which  the  neighbors,  including 
the  women,  joined  with  clubs  and  stones  and  fierce  revihngs. 
The  women  came  off  victorious.  The  village  master  and  his 
servants  illustrated  the  dishonesty  of  Persian  life.  The  ser- 
vants, it  seems,  had  taken  wheat  to  market,  and  claimed  that 
it  had  come  out  short  weight.  They  had  exchanged  the  wheat 
for  fruit,  and  this  was  also  hght  in  weight.  They  said  they  had 
paid  sixteen  shahis  a  batman,  while  the  Khoi  price  was  ten. 
At  every  point  they  wished  to  "  eat."  The  master  made  them 
"  eat  sticks,"  that  is,  suiTer  the  bastinado. 

In  the  mountain  fastnesses  one's  imagination  is  free  to  pic- 
ture Kurds  and  robbers  behind  the  rocks  and  in  the  recesses 
of  the  valleys.  Our  traveling  without  sword  or  gun  excited 
continual  wonder.  Our  chance  companion  was  armed  with  a 
Martini-Henry,  two  carbines,  a  sword,  a  dirk,  and  a  great  dis- 
play of  ammunition.  His  fear  was  proportionate  to  his  armor. 
The  Persian  proverb  is,  "  A  man  bitten  by  a  snake  fears  a  rope." 
So  the  people  are  on  the  outlook  for  Kurds,  and  in  constant 
alarm.  Once,  on  coming  down  the  mountain,  we  saw  a  cara- 
van fleeing  before  us,  and  on  giving  them  our  "  peace  "  we 
found  that  "  half  of  their  life  had  escaped  "  from  fear  of  us. 

The  air  of  the  region  makes  it  a  perfect  sanatorium,  invig- 
orating and  bracing,  even  in  midsummer.  The  lordly  Ararat, 
veiled  in  white  and  wreathed  in  cloud,  was  visible  in  front  of 
us.  Beyond  Shoat  is  a  warm  spring,  much  frequented  by 
bathers.  As  we  approached  Maku  our  course  wound  in  and 
out  of  a  narrow  valley,  through  which  the  river  of  the  same 
name  flows,  and  frequently  descends  in  rapids.  In  one  of  the 
turns  of  the  confined  rocky  gorge  Maku  suddenly  came  into 
view,  and  presented  a  wonderful  sight.  The  bare  rocky  moun- 
tain rose  abruptly  on  both  sides  to  a  height  which  seemed  at 
least  a  thousand  feet.    The  mountain  on  the  right,  in  the  course 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  87 

of  its  ascent,  turns  outward,  and  jutting  far  forward  hangs  like 
a  canopy  over  the  city.  In  the  recess  at  the  angle  the  fortress 
is  built,  presenting  a  formidable  front,  and  flanked  with  walls. 
Here  are  stored  ammunition  and  much  treasure,  and  above, 
high  on  the  ledge  of  the  rock,  reached  only  by  scaling  a  rope 
hand  over  hand,  are  provisions,  and  by  removing  a  plug  a 
spring  of  water  flows  out,  which  in  ordinary  times  finds  exit 
below.  Nature  and  man  have  combined  to  make  a  stronghold 
for  old-time  warfare.  Beneath  this  overhanging  mountain,  the 
first  sight  of  which  fills  one  with  awe,  the  city  of  five  thousand 
carries  on  its  business  without  a  feeling  of  uneasiness,  though 
we  were  shown  houses  destroyed  by  the  falling  rocks  and  by 
destructive  torrents  flowing  down  upon  them.  Boulders  lie 
about  in  the  streets.  Some  houses  are  built  on  a  single  rock. 
The  echo  in  the  recess  gives  to  the  thousand  sounds  from 
below  a  confused  reverberation.  The  houses,  which  are  built 
of  rough  stone  and  mud,  are  one  story  high,  and  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  the  old  houses  of  New  Mexico.  Many  are 
erected  on  such  a  declivity,  like  those  in  Quebec,  that  the  roof 
is  on  a  level  with  the  street  above.  The  homes  of  the  khans 
stand  as  palaces  in  the  midst  of  hovels.  The  house  of  Isaac 
Pasha  is  built  on  a  prominent  rock,  with  a  pentagonal  front, 
and  having  one  continuous  window,  with  panes  of  plain  and 
colored  glass ;  it  presents  a  unique  and  fantastic  appearance. 
Tamur  Pasha  has  a  palace  near  the  gardens  by  the  river-bank. 
He  is  a  feudal  lord,  and  the  hereditary  chief  of  the  region. 
He  and  the  khans  of  his  family  hold  the  title  in  fee  simple  to 
hundreds  of  villages,  with  their  attached  lands — a  territory  of 
many  square  miles.  He  has  an  army  of  retainers,  generally 
quartered  on  the  villagers,  and  also  a  considerable  Kurdish  fol- 
lowing. His  personal  property,  we  were  told,  is  immense. 
People  made  no  estimate  of  it.  They  simply  pointed  to  the 
fortress  and  spoke  of  its  chests  of  uncounted  gold  and  silver, 
This  chief  once  raised  his  head  atrainst  the  shah.     But  the 


88  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

shah's  forces,  under  the  Sipah  Silar,  humbled  him  and  led  him 
captive  to  Teheran.  A  present  of  twenty  thousand  dollars 
secured  his  pardon. 

The  district  is  full  of  murder  and  rapine.  Nearly  every 
man  carries  a  sword  and  owns  a  musket.  One  of  my  visitors 
had  just  recovered  from  a  fight,  and  had  a  terrible  gash  on  his 
brow.  Another  was  dumb,  his  tongue  having  been  pulled 
loose  by  a  young  khan.  As  I  passed  through  the  pasha's 
grounds  to  visit  him,  a  moUa  was  seated  on  the  ground  trying 
a  case  of  murder,  in  which  a  village  of  Ali-AIlahis  were  accu- 
sers of  some  Kurds.  The  oath  of  neither  party  was  credible, 
but  a  payment  of  blood-money  of  three  hundred  dollars  was 
fixed  upon  the  Kurds.  This  was  a  high  price,  for  frequently 
a  man's  hfe  is  not  valued  at  more  than  twenty-five  dollars. 

The  room  in  which  I  was  received  by  the  pasha  was  in 
mixed  Persian  style.  The  windows  were  formed  of  ten  thou- 
sand pieces  of  stained  glass,  while  the  walls  and  ceiling  were 
covered  with  innumerable  mirrors,  large  and  small,  set  in  plas- 
ter. The  carpets  were  of  superior  quality,  though  chairs  and 
tables  from  Europe  stood  about  and  completed  the  furnishings 
of  the  apartment.  The  representative  of  the  Vali  Ahd,  several 
khans  and  mollas  were  present,  and  in  the  halls  and  adjoining 
rooms  were  numerous  retainers  and  some  Kurds.  After  show- 
ing me  to  a  seat  of  honor,  and  making  some  general  inquiries, 
the  pasha  questioned  me  pointedly  on  matters  of  religion, 
entering  with  me  into  controversy.  First  they  desired  to  know 
why  I  did  not  receive  Mohammed  and  the  Koran.  Then  they 
discussed  the  subject  of  the  Trinity,  with  the  incarnation  and 
divinity  of  Christ.  I  explained  the  doctrines  and  offered 
proofs  from  the  Scriptures.  The  pasha  said,  "  Oh,  away  with 
your  books!  Give  us  something  that  commends  itself  to  the 
reason." 

Europeans  rarely  find  their  way  to  Maku.  I  had  my  lodg- 
ing in  the  Isaac  Pasha  caravansary.    It  had  about  forty  shops, 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  U  RUM  I A  89 

the  lower  story  being  for  mechanics,  the  upper  for  merchants 
and  travelers.  Opposite  my  windows  were  a  tea-house  and 
the  shops  of  a  couple  of  rival  tailors — one  with  the  Howe,  the 
other  with  the  Singer,  sewing-machine!  I  opened  a  stock  of 
Scriptures  and  exposed  them  for  sale,  curiosity  drawing  the 
people  in  a  continuous  stream  to  my  booth  during  the  five 
days  I  was  there.  There  are  many  hundred  Armenians  in  the 
community,  most  of  them  living,  however,  outside  of  the  town. 
The  monastery  of  Thaddeus  is  not  far  distant. 

Around  Maku  are  many  curious  sights.  There  are  unde- 
ciphered  inscriptions,  some  in  Cufic  and  some  in  ancient 
Georgian,  carved  crosses  on  the  rocks,  rooms  cut  in  the  sohd 
mountain,  buried  treasures,  old  churches,  and  a  bottomless  pit, 
whose  gas  extinguishes  a  light  and  reduces  a  man  to  uncon- 
sciousness, from  which  he  is  revived  with  difficulty  if  speedily 
withdrawn. 

Retracing  our  way,  and  passing  through  Khoi,  one  day's 
march  west  of  the  latter  brought  us  to  Salmas. 

Salmas  is  a  well- watered  and  fruitful  plain,  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  mountains,  and  on  the  fourth  by  Lake  Urumia. 
Through  its  center  flows  the  Zolah  River,  rising  in  the  Zagros. 
Its  surface,  of  about  one  hundred  square  miles,  contains  four- 
score villages.  Dilman  and  Kuhna  Shahr,  or  "  Old  City,"  are 
the  chief  towns,  which  are  of  five  thousand  inhabitants  each. 
The  former  is  the  capital,  and  contains  the  court-house,  cus- 
tom-house, post  and  telegraph  offices,  and  chief  bazaars.  The 
markets  are  open  two  days  in  each  place,  Sunday  is  a  special 
market-day,  and  is  called  here,  as  in  Turkey,  "bazaar-day." 
Back  of  the  plain  is-Chahari,  the  seat  of  the  Shakoik  Kurds. 
It  has  a  natural  fortification,  from  which  issues  an  immense 
fountain  of  water.  The  mountains  contain  curious  petrifica- 
tions of  fish,  snakes,  and  other  animals.  Near  the  foot  of  the 
plain,  on  a  rocky  hill  called  Surat  Daghi,  is  a  Sassanian  sculp- 
ture in  bas-relief.     It  represents  two  horsemen  and  a  figure 


90  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

on  foot,  of  mammoth  size,  supposed  to  be  Ardeshir  and  Sha- 
pur  I.  receiving  the  submission  of  the  Armenians.  Ker  Porter 
(vol.  ii.,  p.  597)  reproduced  the  inscription  and  describes  it 
fully.  He  supposes  one  horseman  to  be  the  Emperor  Galerius, 
the  other  Narsi,  king  of  Persia,  and  the  one  on  foot  Tiridates, 
king  of  Armenia.  The  spot  where  the  eyes  of  the  figures  are 
focused  has  been  dug  up  in  search  of  treasure,  just  as  Wash- 
ington Irving  narrates  regarding  the  Alhambra. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  plain  are  mostly  Turks,  with  some 
Kurds,  six  thousand  Armenians,  three  thousand  Chaldeans  and 
Assyrians,  and  five  hundred  Jews.  The  Jews  reside  in  Kuhna 
Shahr,  the  Christians  in  a  score  or  more  villages.  The  Arme- 
nians are  thrifty  and  prosperous.  They  were  free  from  op- 
pression until  of  late  years,  when  quarrels  with  other  Christians 
— especially  Catholics — and  political  agitations  have  given  oc- 
casion to  some  Persian  officials  to  fine  and  maltreat  some  of 
them.  The  Armenian  villages  of  Salmas  are  the  best  built  of 
any  in  Persia,  and  farmers  and  tradesmen  alike  have  a  com- 
paratively high  standard  of  living.  The  chief  Armenian  mer- 
chant had  an  electric  bell  to  ring  at  his  gate ;  one  of  his  sons 
was  an  amateur  photographer,  another  dabbled  in  telegraphy. 
At  Haftdewan  is  a  curious  old  church  built  of  stone,  with 
arched  dome  and  large  altar.  As  usual,  it  was  without  seats, 
and  the  back  gallery  was  assigned  to  the  women.  Its  walls  we 
found  frescoed  and  hung  with  old  pictures,  representing  scenes 
in  the  life  of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  the  canvas  almost  falling 
to  pieces  from  age.  One  fresco  represents  the  judgment.  A 
male  angel,  with  black  hair,  holds  a  pair  of  balances.  The 
one  scale  is  filled  with  light,  the  other  with  darkness,  which  is 
overweighted,  though  the  devil  and  a  group  of  imps  are  pull- 
ing with  all  their  might  on  the  side  of  darkness.  On  the  side 
of  light  are  groups  sitting  peaceably  in  Paradise  ;  on  the  other 
is  hell's  gate,  and  behind  it  souls  in  misery.  In  the  church  is 
a  dark  well,  in  which  many  sick  persons,  and  especially  luna- 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE   URUMIA  91 

tics,  are  confined  in  the  hope  of  being  healed.  Mussulmans, 
while  rejecting  much  of  the  good  they  might  see  in  the  Arme- 
nians, are  fully  ready  to  adopt  this  superstition.  I  met  a 
straggling  procession  of  about  thirty  women,  with  their  babies 
sniffling  and  coughing.  They  were  Mussulmans  from  Dilman 
coming  to  the  Christian  shrine  for  the  healing  of  their  children. 
Above  the  Old  City  is  a  monastery,  to  which  pilgrimages  are 
made,  and  where  sacrifices  are  offered.  It  also  has  a  crazy-pit 
for  the  faith-cure.  The  monastery  walls  were  lately  strength- 
ened and  heightened.  The  government,  hearing  that  a  forti- 
fication was  being  built,  ordered  the  walls  to  be  razed.  After- 
ward permission  was  given  to  build  low  walls.  The  shrine  and 
supposed  grave  of  the  Apostle  Bartholomew  is  a  short  distance 
off  in  Turkey,  at  Albak  (Arebanes).  A  numerous  caravan  of 
merit-seeking  pilgrims  yearly  visits  the  shrine  with  great  feast- 
ing. The  estimated  expense  for  one  year  of  the  congregated 
Salmas  pilgrims  was  thirty  thousand  days'  wages. 

The  American  Presbyterian  missionaries  reside  in  Haftde- 
wan ;  the  French  Lazarists  have  for  many  years  had  the  head- 
quarters of  their  work  at  Khosrova. 

From  the  plain  of  Salmas  we  passed  on  toward  the  south, 
crossing  the  Gadik,  or  Pass  of  Werkewiz.  Near  the  foot  of 
the  pass,  in  the  waters  of  the  lake,  are  the  ruins  of  Gugerchin 
Kala,  a  fortress.  The  fortress  dominates  a  rock  about  eight 
hundred  feet  high,  but  now  made  an  island  by  the  disintegra- 
tion of  its  land  side.  There  are  caves  under  the  fortress,  with 
reservoirs  of  fresh  water.  Here,  it  is  said,  the  treasures  of 
Hulaku  Khan,  Mongol,  were  concealed. 

Our  station  for  the  night  was  Gavlan,  the  village  of  Mar 
Yokannan,  who  visited  America  with  Dr.  Perkins.  Here  the 
American  Mission  has  a  building,  combining  chapel,  school, 
and  summer  residence.  The  next  day  brought  us  to  Urumia. 
Fortunate  is  he  who  visits  this  region  in  the  springtime.  Sir 
Ker  Porter  thought  the  Khoi  plain  the  finest  he  had  seen  in 


92  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

Persia.  He  would  have  awarded  this  praise  to  Urumia  had 
he  seen  it  at  its  best.  An  excursion  to  Mount  Seir,  seventy- 
three  hundred  and  thirty-four  feet  above  sea-level,  gave  us 
the  finest  view  of  the  district.  Dr.  Cochran,  the  physician  of 
the  mission,  invited  Mr.  Whipple  and  me  to  be  his  guests  at 
the  Seir  house.  A  little  off  the  road  as  we  ascend  is  an  ancient 
church  of  Mar  Sergis  (St.  Sergis),  another  of  the  shrines  and 
crazy-dens  patronized  alike  by  Christians  and  Mohammedans. 
The  interior  of  the  church  was  dark  and  dingy ;  its  walls  were 
adorned  with  numerous  handkerchiefs,  the  offerings  of  the 
pilgrims.  The  great  number  of  handkerchiefs — we  counted 
as  many  as  one  hundred  and  forty,  and  these  are  a  recent 
collection,  for  the  Kurds  stripped  the  shrine  when  they  overran 
the  country — leads  one  to  suppose  that  this  article  is  especially 
necessary  to  the  worthy  saint. 

We  spent  the  night  at  Seir,  in  the  house  where  a  generation 
of  American  missionaries  have  lived  and  labored.  Here  were 
the  college  and  seminary  of  former  days ;  and  these  poorly 
lighted  mud-rooms  are  hallowed  by  the  associations  of  glorious 
revivals  of  religion,  and  are  looked  back  to  by  the  old  pastors 
with  most  sacred  memories.  Here,  too,  is  the  cemetery  in 
which  rests  all  that  was  mortal  of  Wright,  Stoddard,  Cochran, 
Breath,  Thomson,  Rhea,  and  others,  who,  being  dead,  yet  speak 
to  two  continents.  In  the  same  picket  inclosure  are  many 
little  mounds — of  Judith  Perkins,  the  "  Flower  of  Persia,"  and 
other  childlike  forms — which  tell  the  story  of  bereaved  hearts. 
Over  thirty  stones  bear  silent  witness  to  the  consecration  by 
America  of  her  sons  and  daughters  for  the  evangelization  of 
this  people.  Here,  too,  is  the  sparkling  perennial  spring  from 
which  a  generation  of  missionaries  and  their  children  have  been 
refreshed.  Seir  is  now  used  merely  as  a  summer  retreat  from 
the  heat  and  malaria  of  the  plain ;  but  its  annals  of  past  work 
for  God  have  hallowed  it  in  the  hearts  of  many. 

In  the  morning  we  passed  up  the  mountain-side,  which  was 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  93 

clothed  in  the  rich  verdure  of  spring.  The  floral  attire,  too, 
was  bright-tinted  and  varied.  TuHps,  hyacinths,  irises,  blue- 
bells, buttercups,  and,  higher  up,  crocuses  just  springing  from 
the  melted  snow,  and  some  almost  growing  in  it,  and  fragrant 
herbs  of  unknown  name,  made  a  pleasing  variety.  The  air 
was  filled  with  the  sweet  perfume,  the  horses'  hoofs  found  a 
flowery  path,  and  our  anticipations  were  more  than  realized. 
Reaching  one  of  the  highest  points  of  Seir,  we  surveyed  the 
scene  both  from  the  front  and  from  the  rear. 

Farther  on  lay  Mergawar  and  Tergawar,  the  valleys  in  the 
mountains,  and  the  roads  leading  to  Gawar,  and  to  the  home 
of  the  sheik  of  the  Kurds,  up  the  snow-capped  range  which 
separates  Persia  from  Turkey.  The  view  to  the  rear,  looking 
out  upon  the  plain,  though  not  so  fine,  was  more  interesting. 
At  the  foot  of  the  undulating,  grassy  hills  stretched  to  the 
southward  Baranduz  plain,  with  its  river  of  the  same  name  ;  in 
the  center  the  city,  with  the  meandering  Shahr  Chai ;  and  to 
the  north  the  Nazlu  plain  and  river.  The  whole  scene  was 
well  watered,  green  with  grain  and  grass,  and  bright  with  rice- 
fields,  with  innumerable  rows  of  willows  and  poplars  along  a 
thousand  life-giving  arteries,  fed  from  the  main  streams,  and 
giving  fertility  to  numberless  orchards  and  vineyards — a  stretch 
of  verdure  fifty  miles  long  and  twenty  wide,  having  in  its  cen- 
ter the  compact  city  of  Urumia,  and  seven  hundred  villages 
scattered  about  in  every  fitting  spot.  The  ash-mounds  of  the 
fire-worshipers,  Geogtapa,  Sheikhtapa,  and  Degala,  arrested  the 
eye.  Prominent,  too,  was  Bakhsh  Kala,  whose  fort  is  said  to 
have  been  built  of  stones  passed  from  a  distant  mountain  by 
a  row  of  men  from  hand  to  hand,  like  water-buckets  at  a  fire. 
On  the  north  and  south  the  plain  is  fringed  by  bleak,  barren 
hills,  the  whole  terminating  in  the  blue  waters  of  the  lake, 
dotted  here  and  there  with  islands.  Across  the  lake  the  range 
of  Ainal-Zainal  appears  beyond  Tabriz,  and  southward  the 
snowy  Sahend  and  the  regions  of  Maragha  and  Mianduab.    It 


94  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

is  a  splendid  panoramic  view,  showing  the  plains  in  all  their 
beauty,  the  positions  of  the  villages  and  the  geography  of  the 
lake  region  in  striking  clearness.  Picnicking  on  these  beautiful 
mountains  was  a  pastime  long  to  be  remembered. 

Quite  near  the  center  of  this  fertile  plain  is  the  city  of 
Urumia.  It  is  built  in  the  usual  Persian  style,  with  narrow, 
crooked  streets,  some  of  them  paved  with  cobblestones.  The 
population  is  twenty-five  thousand.  A  few  hundred  Chris- 
tians reside  in  the  city,  and  in  the  villages  are  about  twenty- 
five  thousand  Nestorians  and  five  thousand  Armenians.  The 
bazaars  are  inferior.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  an  adobe  wall, 
which  was  repaired  after  the  attack  of  the  Kurds,  but  is  now 
crumbling  and  dilapidated  in  many  places.  Urumia  is  entered 
by  seven  gates,  leading  from  five  avenues  of  trees.  The  wall, 
three  miles  in  length,  is  surrounded  by  a  moat,  a  receptacle  for 
the  offal  of  the  slaughter  and  bath  houses,  and  for  the  drain- 
age of  the  city,  and  is,  of  course,  a  fertile  breeding-spot  for 
malaria.  Formerly  the  moat  was  full  of  trees ;  but  during  the 
Kurdish  raid  they  interfered  with  the  firing,  so  the  Nestorians 
were  sent  out  to  cut  them  down.  The  enemy  not  caring  to 
waste  their  ammunition  on  the  unarmed  Christians,  they 
worked  away  during  the  thickest  of  the  firing,  and  remained 
unharmed.  The  fortress  of  the  beglar-begi  has  walls  of  much 
greater  strength  than  the  city  itself.  It  was  the  stronghold  of 
the  khans  when  Urumia  was  independent. 

Two  wards  of  the  city  are  inhabited  principally  by  Chris- 
tians, most  of  them  Assyrians.  In  the  quarter  of  Gyol  Fath 
Ali  Khan  the  Lazarist  Mission  has  its  headquarters ;  in  the 
other  the  American  and  Anglican  missions  are  situated.  This 
quarter  is  called  the  Mart  Mariam,  from  the  church  erected 
here  in  honor  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Tradition  relates  how  it 
came  to  be  built.  It  seems  that  a  priest  was  sleeping  in  his 
house  when  a  woman  appeared  to  him.  He  asked,  "  Who  are 
you  ?  "     She  answered,  "  I  am  Mary,  the  Mother  of  Jesus. 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  95 

Build  a  church  here  in  my  name,  and  let  all  mothers  who  lack 
milk  to  nourish  their  children  come  to  my  shrine,  and  I  will 
make  their  supply  plentiful."  So  the  women  come  with  wax 
candles  and  incense  to  beseech  her  blessing.  Even  Moham- 
medan women  frequent  the  shrine. 

There  are  many  pleasant  rides  about  Urumia.  One  of 
these  lies  along  the  river-banks.  Riding  out  of  the  Seir  gate, 
we  came  opposite  to  the  garden  of  Ikabal-i-Doulah,  where  the 
Kurds  fortified  themselves  for  the  attack,  and  in  which  the 
palace  was  demolished  by  his  own  orders.  Twenty  minutes' 
ride  along  shaded  avenues  brought  us  to  the  college  and  hos- 
pital of  the  American  Mission.  A  little  beyond  them  is  the 
river.  It  is  a  popular  resort.  Tying  their  horses  to  the  trees, 
the  Persians  sit  on  the  grassy  banks  and  pass  the  idle  hours 
with  the  samovar  and  kaleon,  or,  as  is  the  case  with  some,  with 
dice  and  cards.  Some  are  dyeing  and  washing  and  dr3ang 
native  print  goods ;  others  are  seine-fishing  in  the  river.  We 
came  upon  a  gipsy  village,  where  some  of  these  nomads  had 
been  in  winter  quarters.  They  are  a  dark-skinned,  rough,  and 
uncouth  people,  who  seem  to  have  a  cult  of  their  own,  though 
outwardly  they  are  Mussulmans.  In  summer  they  roam  about, 
living  in  black  tents,  the  women  telling  fortunes  as  in  Christian 
lands,  using  a  book  or  a  shoulder-blade,  as  the  case  may  be. 
The  men  make  seines  and  hair  ropes,  trade  horses,  and  are  con- 
sidered loose-fingered.     They  pay  tribute  to  the  government. 

We  were  here  greatly  attracted  to  the  ash-hills  of  the  fire- 
worshipers.  Of  considerable  size,  associated  with  an  unknown 
past,  they  seem  appropriate  to  the  place  where  Zoroaster  was 
born,  and  where  the  Emperor  Heraclius  (a.d.  625)  destroyed 
a  magnificent  fire-temple,  along  with  the  city.  I  visited  ash- 
hills  at  Degala,  at  Geogtapa,  and  at  Sheikhtapa.  They  have 
been  much  excavated,  and  for  centuries  the  ashes  have  been 
used  as  fertilizers.  Coins,  earrings,  and  bracelets  of  copper 
and  gold,  bowls,  lamps,  and  other  earthen  utensils  have  been 


96  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

unearthed.  Pieces  of  broken  pottery  are  dug  up  continually 
and  are  lying  about.  Bones  of  men  and  animals  are  also  ex- 
cavated. When  building  Geogtapa  church,  on  the  site  of  the 
ash-hill,  large  building-stones  were  dug  up.  A  Babylonian 
cylinder  of  unusual  size  was  found.  It  was  purchased  from  the 
owner  of  the  village,  and  is  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York.  At  Degala  niter  is  produced  for  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder.  It  is  a  strange  fate  that  Ahriman  should  ex- 
tract his  weapons  of  destruction  from  the  monuments  of  the 
worshipers  of  Ormuzd.  The  ashes  are  dissolved  in  water  and 
passed  through  a  series  of  vats.  The  niter  settles  at  the  bot- 
tom. The  sediment  is  boiled  in  a  large  caldron,  strained,  and 
spread  in  the  sun  to  dry.  I  secured  several  good  specimens  of 
ancient  pottery  from  Degala  hill — a  flat  red  bowl,  an  earthen 
lamp  of  yellow  tint,  and  a  charred  pot,  probably  used  for  boil- 
ing meat.  When  they  were  seen  by  some  people  on  the  road 
to  Tabriz,  they  inquired  what  they  were.  The  Persian  who  was 
with  me,  with  the  usual  facility  for  prevarication,  answered 
them :  "  They  are  skulls  of  Kurds." 

One  mound  is  a  large  pile  of  stones.  Tradition  states  that 
here  Mar  Guergis  (St.  George)  was  martyred  by  the  fire-wor- 
shipers, and  God  punished  them  by  a  shower  of  stones,  which 
overwhelmed  the  village  and  reared  over  it  a  monument  of 
wrath. 

On  another  day  we  rode  twelve  miles  to  the  lakeside.  It 
was  too  cold  for  bathing.  Near  the  harbor  Melek  Kazim 
Mirza  redeemed  a  plot  of  ground  from  the  surrounding  desert 
and  built  a  house.  The  house  is  dilapidated  and  the  garden 
dried  up,  only  a  few  fig  and  pomegranate  trees  and  a  tiny  stream 
remaining.  The  place  was  purchased  for  one  hundred  dollars 
by  a  lady  in  St.  Louis  as  a  resting-place  for  missionaries.  It 
has  since  become  a  lakeside  Chautauqua.  For  several  weeks 
the  preachers  and  teachers  of  the  Protestant  church  gather 
here  in  an  institute,  where  there  are  lectures  and  conferences. 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  97 

It  is  this  ruin  which  a  captious  critic  of  foreign  missions  has 
exaggerated  into  "  one  of  the  finest  palaces  in  all  Persia,"  and 
which,  he  says,  "  cost  a  large  sum  of  money  "! 

Proceeding  southward  from  Urumia,  we  entered  Kurdistan. 
Our  way  lay  through  the  low  rice-fields  of  Baranduz  to  a  village 
with  the  ill-omened  name  of  Shatanabad  ("  Satanville  ").  Pent 
up  in  a  little  fort,  on  the  top  of  a  steep  hill,  are  a  few  famihes 
of  Armenians,  surrounded  by  some  Kurds.  The  streets  are  so 
narrow  that  horses  can  scarcely  pass.  The  houses  have  no 
yards  whatever.  The  Kurdish  aga  has  a  good  estabhshment 
on  the  level  ground  near  the  village.  We  expected  to  find  our 
load  with  bedding,  etc.,  already  there,  but  it  did  not  come  at 
all.  Our  Armenian  hostess,  moving  around  with  her  mouth 
tied  up,  did  her  best  to  make  us  comfortable.  The  family 
fowl  occupied  their  accustomed  place  in  the  family  room,  and 
in  the  morning  did  not  allow  us  to  oversleep.  On  the  next  day 
we  reached  Sulduz,  where  finally  our  belated  load  arrived,  hav- 
ing been  delayed  by  robbers.  They  had  come  upon  our  servant 
Asdsadoor  and  the  charvadar,  thrown  down  the  load,  and  ex- 
amined it.  Asdsadoor  cast  himself  on  the  ground,  kissed  their 
feet,  and  begged  them  not  to  take  the  sahib's  property  or  in- 
jure him.  Finally  they  released  him,  only  retaining  some  sugar 
and  tea,  a  few  krans,  and  some  things  that  could  not  be  iden- 
tified. 

Kurds  frequently  render  the  roads  unsafe.  When  Miss  N.  J. 
Dean  was  on  her  way  to  America  the  charvadar  was  attacked, 
and  her  wardrobe  and  some  curios  were  taken.  Nothing 
was  ever  recovered.  On  another  occasion  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Stocking  were  entering  Salmas,  when  three  Kurds  attacked 
them.  One  drew  his  sword  and  began  beating  Mr.  Stocking 
over  the  back,  while  the  others  helped  themselves  to  the  bag- 
gage, pistol,  and  field-glass.  They  then  demanded  money. 
Mr.  Stocking  having  some  time  before  given  his  purse  to  Mrs. 
Stocking,  a  Kurd  leveled  his  cocked  gun  at  him  to  enforce  the 


98  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

demand.  This  was  too  much  for  the  lady  ;  she  threw  the  purse 
to  the  robbers,  glad  to  avert  a  worse  calamity.  One  Kurd 
snatched  off  her  bonnet,  and  was  disappointed  not  to  find  any 
ornaments  on  her  head. 

Another  American  missionary  was  attacked  just  outside  of 
the  college  gate  at  Urumia  in  1893.  He  was  stripped  of  his 
clothes  and  all  the  money  he  had  with  him.  He  was  taken 
into  a  garden  and  left  there,  with  injunctions  not  to  raise  an 
alarm  for  half  an  hour,  under  penalty  of  death.  The  govern- 
ment acted  with  commendable  energy  in  endeavoring  to  cap- 
ture the  robbers.  Finally  the  same  gang,  having  attacked  a 
house  in  Sulduz,  were  pursued  by  officers,  driven  to  take 
refuge  in  a  hovel,  which  was  set  on  fire,  and  they  perished  in 
the  flames. 

The  inhabitants  of  Sulduz  and  Ushmuk  are  Kurds  and 
Turks,  with  about  a  thousand  Armenians  and  Nestorians  and 
the  same  number  of  Jews.  The  Turks  are  called  the  Kara- 
papas  ("  Black-hats  ").  They  came  from  the  Transcaucasus  at 
the  time  it  was  conquered  by  the  Russians,  preferring,  hke  the 
Circassians,  to  forsake  their  native  land  rather  than  live  under 
the  rule  of  Christians.  They  were  assigned  this  region  by  the 
shah  as  a  buffer  against  the  Kurds  and  Osmanlis,  and  the  rev- 
enue and  practical  ownership  of  it  were  given  them  for  their 
support.  The  khans  live  beside  their  peasants  in  strongly 
walled  houses.  The  civil  and  military  offices  are  in  their 
hands.  Colonels  and  generals  are  plentiful,  and  they  are 
under  obligation  to  fiu-nish  a  contingent  of  soldiers  to  the  shah 
in  time  of  war.  The  khan  of  the  village  where  we  stopped 
sent  us  his  salaams,  saying,  "  The  village  is  yours ;  won't  you 
do  us  the  honor  of  being  our  guests  ?  " 

Sulduz  is  in  sharp  contrast  to  Urumia,  in  that  it  is  almost 
treeless.  Material  for  building  is  very  scarce.  The  sod  is  cut, 
dried,  and  used  for  bricks.  The  uncomely  buffalo,  wallowing 
in  water,  is  a  common  sight.     One  of  the  amusements  of  the 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  99 

populace  is  to  see  these  huge  beasts  fight.  They  will  contend 
until  their  heads  are  covered  with  gore,  and  the  victor  will 
even  try  to  drown  his  antagonist.  Ushmuk  is  famous  for  a 
blue  serpentine,  from  which  are  cut  kaleon  heads,  pipes,  vases, 
inkstands,  and  various  ornaments.  Upon  the  mountains,  near 
the  border  of  Turkey,  is  an  interesting  rock  with  a  cuneiform 
inscription.  Border  disputes  about  land  and  flocks  are  very 
common.  In  1892  one  of  these  quarrels  resulted  in  con- 
siderable bloodshed,  and  a  joint  commission  from  Turkey  and 
Persia  was  sent  to  the  spot  to  settle  the  dispute  and  fix  the 
boundary. 

Continuing  our  journey,  as  we  passed  through  Laj  we  saw 
a  crowd  of  people  gathered  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  a 
horseman  and  two  men  on  foot  dashing  across  the  river  and 
fields.  A  fight,  it  seems,  was  on  between  the  two  villages.  As 
the  result,  a  man  came  to  the  siugeon's  house  in  Daraluk  with 
a  deep,  long  sword-gash  on  his  head.  The  surgeon  being 
absent,  his  wife  shaved  the  hair  of  the  head  with  a  common 
broad-bladed  pocket-knife  and  dressed  the  wound. 

A  few  hours'  ride  brought  us  to  Soujbulak,  a  city  of  ten 
thousand  inhabitants.  It  is  an  unhealthy  place,  the  water  of 
the  river  being  defiled  by  the  sewage  of  the  city.  During 
the  cattle-plague  in  the  valleys  above,  the  carcasses  of  the  ani- 
mals were  thrown  into  the  river  as  the  easiest  way  to  get  rid  of 
them.  Even  the  fish  which  abound  in  the  river  have  a  nasty 
taste,  yet  many  people  drink  of  it  rather  than  bring  water  from 
the  upper  spring.     No  wonder  that  fever  abounds  ! 

Soujbulak  is  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Kurdistan.  A  gar- 
rison of  Persian  soldiers  keeps  watch  over  the  Kurds.  From 
here  it  is  nine  days  by  caravan  to  Mosul,  through  the  Ravan- 
duz  Pass.  Outgoing  caravans  were  then  carrying  their  feed, 
owing  to  the  locusts  having  eaten  up  vegetation  along  the  road. 
To  the  west  are  the  forests  of  Leilajan,  where  there  are  large 
deposits  of  coal. 


100  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

Soujbulak  takes  its  name  from  the  mineral  springs  close  be- 
side it,  called  soda-springs  on  Kiepert's  map.  There  are  more 
than  a  dozen  of  them,  which  are  strongly  impregnated  with 
gas,  and  leave  a  thick  deposit  on  the  hillside.  Near  the  city 
is  the  tomb  of  Pir  Budak  Sultan,  some  two  hundred  years  old. 
The  structure  is  about  forty  by  twenty  feet,  with  a  central 
dome.  The  slabs  are  of  alabaster,  about  ten  feet  long,  and  the 
inscriptions  are  in  Persian.  Budak  Sultan  was  chief  sheik  of 
the  Mukri  Kurds  when  they  came  from  Turkey.  They  are 
divided  into  two  divisions ;  the  chiefs  of  one  are  called  beg- 
zadas,  of  the  other  agas.  To  the  north  of  the  city  is  a  cliff- 
dwelling,  reached  with  difficulty  by  means  of  ladders.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Kurds.  The  remainder  are  a  mixture 
of  Persians,  Turks,  Jews,  Armenians,  Jacobites,  and  Nestorians. 
Boys  grow  up  able  to  speak  four  or  five  languages  without  effort. 

The  Kurds  of  this  district,  including  those  on  the  Persian 
side  northward  to  Mount  Ararat,  are  variously  estimated  at  from 
two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  to  four  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand in  number.  To  the  south,  those  of  Senna  and  Ardelan 
are  estimated  at  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand,  and  those 
of  Kermanshah  at  two  hundred  and  thirty  thousand,  making  a 
total  of  Kurds  resident  in  Persia  of  from  six  hundred  thousand 
to  eight  hundred  thousand.  A  larger  portion  live  in  Turkey. 
They  are  undoubtedly  the  Carduchi  of  Xenophon,  and  have 
remained  in  a  condition  of  semi-independence  from  the  earli- 
est times.  Living  on  the  l)orders  of  Turkey  and  Persia,  they 
are  in  subjection  to  neither  government,  and  can,  as  occasion  re- 
quires, for  the  purpose  either  of  plunder  or  of  escape  from  pun- 
ishment, move  from  one  territory  to  the  other.  There  are  two 
divisions  of  them  :  some  are  permanent  denizens  of  towns  and 
villages  ;  others  live  in  villages  during  the  winter,  and  roam  on 
the  mountains  with  their  flocks  and  herds  during  the  remain- 
der of  the  year.  Their  language  is  akin  to  the  Persian.  It 
is  rarely  written,  the  Persian  being  the  literary  language  for 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  101 

the  Kurds  of  Persia ;  the  Arabic,  or  Osmanh  Turkish,  the 
language  for  those  of  Turkey.  Few  of  them  can  read  or  write. 
Their  language  has  a  number  of  dialects,  corresponding  to 
their  separate  districts. 

Most  of  the  Kurds  are  shepherds  and  farmers  by  occupation, 
though  warriors  by  profession.  Those  of  Soujbulak  and  other 
cities  are,  however,  engaged  in  merchandise  and  the  trades. 
They  are  fond  of  play,  and  are  shiftless  and  improvident  for 
the  future.  They  borrow  recklessly,  at  exorbitant  interests, 
and  become  victims  of  the  mortgagee.  The  aspect  of  their 
city  is  dilapidated  and  poverty-stricken.  There  is  little  beauty 
of  garden  or  orchard.  I  called  on  a  rich  citizen  who  had  a 
small  orchard.  Pointing  to  it  and  the  bleak  mountains  beyond, 
he  asked  me  if  I  thought  there  was  any  country  in  the  world 
equal  in  beauty  to  Kurdistan.  My  reply  was  such  as  courtesy 
dictated.  At  the  time  of  our  visit  the  governor  of  Soujbulak 
was  Saf-i-Din  Khan,  son  of  the  Sirdar  Aziz,  formerly  governor 
of  Tabriz.  He  was  an  intelligent  Kurd.  He  had  bought  an 
hydraulic  machine  for  irrigation,  and  had  ordered  American 
reapers  and  threshers  through  an  Armenian  merchant. 

Opportunely,  while  we  were  there,  the  khallat  or  robe  of 
honor  from  the  shah  arrived  for  the  governor,  on  the  renewal 
of  his  appointment.  The  day  of  its  reception  was  made  a  gala 
day.  The  bazaars  were  closed,  and  everybody  turned  out  to 
meet  the  bearer.  Companies  of  Persian  soldiers  attended  him. 
Kurdish  sheiks  and  beys  were  there  with  their  mounted  re- 
tainers, the  latter  splendid  specimens  of  manhood,  with  sharp, 
fine-cut  features,  deep,  dark,  piercing  eyes,  and  stately  bear- 
ing. Courage  and  determination  were  strongly  marked  on 
their  countenances.  Their  costume  of  gay  colors,  with  full 
turban  and  wide-flowing  pantaloons,  is  the  most  picturesque 
in  all  Persia.  A  band  of  them,  mounted  on  their  keen-tem- 
pered and  fancifully  caparisoned  horses,  each  with  many  dag- 
gers and  revolvers  in  the  folds  of  his  ample  girdle,  and  a  spear 


102  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

twelve  or  fifteen  feet  long,  or  a  Martini-Henry,  thrown  over  his 
shoulder,  and  a  belt  of  cartridges  buckled  around  his  waist, 
have  a  fierce,  warlike  appearance.  The  chief  citizens  were  also 
mounted,  though  every  one  else  came  out  on  foot.  Bands  of 
music  enlivened  the  scene.  When  the  bearer  of  the  khallat 
approached,  the  governor  dismounted  and  received  the  robe. 
Returning,  the  procession  marched  through  the  streets  to  the 
palace,  the  people  crowding  the  roofs  of  the  houses  to  see  the 
functionary  pass.  About  an  hour  afterward  I  waited  on  the 
governor  to  congratulate  him.  After  some  days  he  appointed 
a  day  of  rejoicing — a  tournament  on  the  plain  about  four 
miles  away.  On  such  occasions  all  the  people  gather  on  the 
meadows  for  a  merrymaking.  A  clown  is  appointed  king,  and 
rules  the  day,  levying  fines  on  the  governor  and  others.  The 
Kurds  have  horse-races,  the  spear  of  each  horseman  being 
poised  in  the  air,  and  the  fringe  of  his  turban  flying  behind ; 
they  present  a  picturesque  appearance.  With  games,  and  a 
freer  mingling  than  usual  of  men  and  women,  they  grasp  one 
another's  hands  and  dance  the  merry-go-round. 

The  Kurds  in  the  villages  have  rude  habitations,  and  are 
filthy,  unkempt  persons.  The  village  scene  receives  a  pictu- 
resqueness  from  the  stork-nests  on  the  roofs  and  in  the  trees, 
and  the  flight  of  the  birds  everywhere  about.  Women  and 
children  are  seen  returning  with  their  bundles  of  herbs,  gathered 
from  the  hillside,  with  laughter  and  wild,  shrill  songs,  as  gay  as 
any  picnic-party  at  home.  Then  milking-time  comes  round. 
The  flocks  of  cute  little  kids  and  lambs,  which  have  been  pas- 
tured separately,  come  skipping  along  with  their  "  bah-bah," 
"mah-mah,"  each  glossy  black  pet  finding  and  being  found  by 
its  mother,  and  known  to  its  owner  by  some  natural  mark.  We 
sat  down  to  lunch  in  one  of  the  villages.  The  women  spread 
a  piece  of  the  matting  they  were  weaving  for  us  to  sit  upon  in 
the  low  mud-hovel.  With  uncovered  face  and  unconcealed 
merriment  they  discussed  us  in  lively  Kurdish.     We  were  as 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  103 

good  a  show  to  them  as  a  Dahomey  village  in  the  Midway 
Plaisance.  We  took  some  hard-boiled  eggs  from  our  saddle- 
bags to  eat  with  our  bread  and  milk.  They  told  us  in  Turk- 
ish that  milk  and  eggs  eaten  together  would  make  us  ill ! 

In  one  village  I  visited  a  sheik.  Though  a  minor  one, 
he  had,  so  they  told  me,  ten  thousand  followers,  and  was  the 
owner  of  four  or  five  villages.  He  was  of  noble  mien,  with 
long  flowing  robes,  a  turban  and  girdle  of  Kerman  shawl,  and 
a  keen,  intelligent  eye.  His  house  was  plain,  but  much  bet- 
ter than  any  in  the  village.  He  took  us  into  the  family  apart- 
ment, where  we  saw  the  simplicity  of  Kurdish  life.  His  wife 
sat  by  us,  conversed  freely,  and  smoked  her  pipe.  The  maid 
came  and  went  without  thought  or  fear  of  the  strange  men  who 
were  present.  Dinner  was  served  in  an  upper  room.  Boiled 
rice  and  chicken  were  brought  in  on  a  platter,  placed  on  the 
floor  before  us,  and  the  sheik  and  our  party  ate  from  the  same 
dish.  On  the  niche  were  a  few  books,  chiefly  religious,  in  Per- 
sian and  Arabic,  together  with  the  Bible  in  three  or  four  lan- 
guages. Just  before  retiring  for  the  night  some  young  men 
came  and  honored  us  with  music  and  singing,  at  once  quaint 
and  weird.  The  next  morning  the  sheik  held  a  reception 
for  his  followers.  Each  one  came  with  a  present  in  his  hand. 
One  wished  to  know  where  his  asses  had  strayed,  like  Saul,  the 
son  of  Kish.  Another's  property  had  been  stolen,  and  he 
wished  to  discover  the  thief.  Still  another  was  sick  and  child- 
less, and  went  away  satisfied  with  a  written  prayer,  or  a  pill, 
as  the  sheik  might  elect.  Others  look  to  him  as  a  mediator, 
and  through  his  merits  expect  to  obtain  forgiveness  of  sins. 
They  even  attribute  to  him  power  to  help  them  when  absent. 
It  is  his  duty  to  minister  to  both  body  and  soul,  as  well  as  to 
settle  lawsuits  and  take  the  field  as  their  leader  in  battle. 
Asceticism  sometimes  adds  still  more  to  the  reputation  of  a 
sheik.  One  sheik  was  reported  to  have  fasted  forty  days  for 
nine  successive  years,  subsisting  each  day  on  one  fig  only  and 


104  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

a  little  water.  The  devotees  eagerly  take  the  water  in  which 
their  sheik  has  bathed  or  washed  his  clothes,  and  rub  it  on 
their  faces,  or  drink  it,  for  its  sanctifying  qualities. 

This  part  of  Kurdistan  was  in  1891  a  scene  of  much  excite- 
ment. I'he  story  reached  us  in  Tabriz  that  a  band  of  mounted 
Kurds  had  come  one  night  to  a  village  where  a  Christian  fam- 
ily from  Tabriz  was  residing,  and  carried  off  a  beautiful  young 
girl,  compelling  her  to  become  a  Mohammedan  and  to  marry 
a  son  of  a  Kurdish  sheik.  The  family  were  British  subjects. 
The  acting  British  consul,  R.  M.  Baton,  Esq.,  demanded  that 
the  girl  be  released  and  returned  to  her  mother.  The  Kurds 
answered  that  the  elopement  and  the  conversion  to  Islam  were 
of  the  girl's  own  free  will.  The  consul  demanded  that  the  girl 
should  be  brought  before  a  proper  tribunal  to  answer  for  her- 
self. This  the  Kurds  refused,  though  it  was  repeatedly  de- 
manded by  the  Persian  government.  Finally  it  was  arranged 
that  Mr.  Baton,  the  Osmanli  consul,  Beyjat  Effendi  (because 
some  of  the  Kurds  were  Turkish  subjects),  with  some  Persian 
officials  and  a  guard,  should  go  to  the  scene.  Then  what 
strange  and  contradictory  rumors  reached  us  day  by  day! 
Once  we  heard  that  fifteen  thousand  well-armed  Kurds  were 
gathered,  ready  to  die  rather  than  surrender  her;  again  that 
the  Osmanli  consul  was  wounded  and  the  British  consul's  life 
attempted.  One  day  some  Kurds,  pointing  a  musket  at  his 
head,  compelled  the  Osmanli  consul  to  sign  a  paper  that  it 
was  the  girl's  own  choice,  ^^'eeks  passed  without  result,  ex- 
cept the  killing  of  several  Bersian  soldiers  and  the  submissive 
payment  of  mudakhil  to  Bersian  officials.  At  length  the 
affair  became  an  international  question,  discussed  in  Barlia- 
ment  and  telegraphed  across  three  continents.  Several  regi- 
ments of  soldiers  were  sent  to  the  front,  and  a  Trojan  war  was 
expected.  Finally  the  Kurds  yielded,  and  brought  the  girl  to 
the  Bersian  authorities.  At  a  formal  examination  before  the 
officials,  the  consuls,  and  her  mother,  the  girl  stated  that  she 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE  URUMIA  105 

had  of  her  own  will  married  the  Kurd  and  become  a  Mussul- 
man. The  representatives  of  the  nations  and  the  army  of  the 
shah  returned,  leaving  the  girl  to  her  fate.  During  the  excite- 
ment many  Christians  of  Soujbulak  and  the  surrounding  coun- 
try abandoned  their  homes,  with  much  of  their  property,  and 
fled  for  their  lives. 

A  day's  ride  from  Soujbulak  brought  us  to  Mianduab  ("  Be- 
tween-two-waters  "),  a  fine  plain  lying  between  the  Jagatai  and 
the  Tatavu  rivers.  The  road  passes  along  the  telegraph-hne. 
Soon  after  it  was  built,  it  is  said,  a  party  of  Kurdish  highway- 
men attacked  some  Turks.  One  of  the  latter  ran  to  a  tele- 
graph-pole and  threatened  to  send  word  to  Tabriz  if  they  were 
molested.  The  Kurds  were  alarmed  and  let  them  pass  un- 
harmed. East  of  the  Tatavu  the  people  are  largely  Afshar 
Turks  and  Persians,  transferred  from  Kerman  by  Aga  Mo- 
hammed Shah.  The  lower  part  of  this  plain  is  a  swamp-land, 
covered  with  tall  reeds  and  frequented  by  storks  and  wild 
boars.  A  khan  who  had  been  indulging  in  the  latter  forbid- 
den meat  took  carefully  from  his  cupboard,  and  exhibited  to 
me  as  a  rarity  and  precious  medicine,  a  small  bottle  of  lard. 
Near  this  reed-forest  is  Dash-Tapa,  a  rock  with  a  cuneiform 
inscription.  So  little  interest  is  taken  in  the  inscription  that 
though  I  inquired  of  a  number  of  persons  in  Mianduab,  they 
could  tell  me  nothing  of  the  whereabouts  of  the  rock.  Guided 
by  the  map,  after  a  two  hours'  gallop  over  the  plain,  I,  how- 
ever, came  to  the  place,  a  small  circular  hill  rising  out  of  the 
level  plain.  One  side  of  the  rock  is  smoothed  off,  and  a  space 
about  five  feet  by  three  is  inscribed  with  the  arrow-headed 
characters.  At  the  top  of  the  hill  are  the  ruins  of  a  fort,  and 
the  ground  about  gives  back  a  hollow  sound,  as  if  there  were 
a  cavity  below. 

On  the  upper  part  of  this  plain  is  the  sepulcher  of  Hulaku 
Khan,  the  Mongol  conqueror.  Thither  several  Armenian 
friends  accompanied  us.     On  the  plain  we  met  the  khan  who 


106  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

has  charge  of  the  telegraph,  with  horsemen  and  hounds  on  a 
hunt.  He  also  went  with  us,  but  we  found  nothing  remark- 
able at  the  grave.  It  was  sunk  in,  and  some  broken  stones 
were  lying  about.  A  villager  told  us  that  a  man  had  a  dream 
that  there  was  a  treasure  in  it,  and  that  he  dug  it  open,  but 
found  nothing  save  a  skull  and  some  broken  dishes.  Farther 
on  we  saw  outlines  of  an  old  fort  and  traces  of  an  aqueduct, 
which  I  imagine  is  the  Top-Kala  of  Abbas  Mirza,  which  he 
hoped  would  become  the  Woolwich  of  Persia. 

Here  a  Kurdish  kand-khuda  met  us  on  horseback.  Dis- 
mounting, he  came  limping  and  fell  at  the  feet  of  the  khan, 
and  besought  him  to  telegraph  his  grievances  to  Tabriz.  At 
the  same  time  a  woman  came  crying  and  begged  to  be  avenged 
of  her  oppressor.  Later  a  procession  of  thirty  Kurds  met  us. 
Some  gathered  up  dust  by  handfuls  and  threw  it  on  their  heads, 
and  the  whole  company,  with  intense  feeling,  cried  out,  "  Vy, 
vy ! "  One  man  was  borne  on  the  back  of  another  and  laid 
down  before  us.  His  bruised  and  beaten  back  was  exposed 
to  view,  when  a  dozen  cried  with  one  voice,  making  known 
their  complaint  against  the  agent  of  the  landlord  who  had 
maltreated  them.  They  followed  the  khan  to  the  city  to 
telegraph  their  complaint  to  the  government. 

The  life  of  the  semi-nomads  of  this  plain  is  peculiar.  The 
family  tent  is  about  forty  feet  long,  made  of  coarse  black 
woolen  cloth,  and  surrounded  by  smaller  tents  for  provisions 
and  cattle.  A  well  is  dug  near  each  encampment,  and  the 
women  come  to  draw  water  for  their  flocks  as  of  old.  The 
watering-trough  was  made  of  earth  hardened  in  the  sun.  The 
villagers  prepare  their  winter  quarters  in  the  same  place.  The 
building-material  is  a  reed,  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high,  which 
grows  near  the  lake.  A  trench  is  dug  six  feet  deep  and  some- 
what less  in  width  ;  a  gable-roof  is  formed  of  these  reeds  com- 
pactly interwoven.  In  these  underground  houses  they,  with 
their  cattle,  spend  the  winter.      From  this  reed  they  make 


A   CIRCUIT  OF  LAKE   URUMIA  107 

racks  for  their  two-wheeled  carts,  fences  around  their  hay- 
stacks, matting  or  hassir  for  the  floor,  screens,  walking-sticks, 
laths,  tents,  frail  bridges,  and  other  things.  It  is  surprising 
how,  in  the  absence  of  stones  and  timber,  they  utilize  the 
material  at  hand.  One  thing  that  indicates  their  backward 
civilization  is  their  manner  of  procuring  light.  They  burn 
castor-oil.  After  paying  rent  for  the  ground,  plowing,  sowing, 
irrigating,  gathering  the  beans,  and  threshing  them  out  of  the 
pods,  comes  the  boiling  and  crushing  of  them.  The  latter  is 
a  peculiar  sight  in  the  towns.  A  large  stone  or  brick  plat- 
form is  raised  on  a  corner  of  the  street,  and  men  and  women 
stand  beside  it  crushing  the  beans  with  a  heavy  stone  roller. 
After  this  they  are  again  boiled,  and,  the  sediment  sinking,  the 
oil  is  ready  for  the  lamp,  or  to  be  administered  by  the  glassful 
to  village  infants.  I  tried  a  dose  of  it  once,  and  found  the 
remedy  worse  than  the  disease  it  is  designed  to  cure. 

Since  the  Kurdish  raid  Mianduab  has  not  recovered.  Kurds 
do  not  venture  into  the  town.  For  purposes  of  barter  the 
Kurds  and  Persians  have  a  country  fair,  called  Kurd  Bazaar, 
every  Wednesday,  on  the  plain  west  of  the  Tatavu.  From  a 
distance  of  two  days'  march,  and  from  all  directions,  the 
Kurds,  both  men  and  women,  gather  with  cattle,  grain,  butter, 
cheese,  carpets,  etc.,  for  sale.  The  Persian  and  Jewish  shop- 
keepers from  Mianduab  come  with  their  imitation  rifles,  some 
even  engraved  "  Providence  Tool  Co.,  U.  S.  A."  Cattle  and 
horse  dealers  come  from  the  cities — to  the  number  of  two 
thousand  on  favorable  days — a  lively  bazaar. 

The  Jagatai  is  a  noble  river.  During  a  large  part  of  the 
year  ferry-boats  must  be  used  in  crossing.  Caravans  are 
greatly  delayed  and  often  imposed  upon  by  the  ferrymen.  We 
now  turned  our  faces  toward  Tabriz  and  determined  to  hurry 
back,  but  our  charvadar  objected  to  haste.  As  he  rattled  the 
currycomb  over  the  rough  backs  of  the  horses  he  muttered  to 
himself  about  the  injury  done  to  his  animals.      He  knocked 


108  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

his  head  against  the  wall  until  it  seemed  as  if  he  would  crack 
his  pate.  His  despair  foreboded  ill,  and  the  next  morning, 
when  we  arose,  neither  c/iarvadar,  horses,  nor  partial  payment 
in  advance  were  to  be  found.  Under  cover  of  the  darkness 
he  had  followed  the  road  to  Irak,  while  we  had  to  fall  back 
on  donkeys. 

The  following  night  we  spent  at  Binab,  which  means 
"  founded  on  water."  Water  is  reached  at  a  depth  of  ten  feet. 
Its  principal  mosque  is  illuminated  every  Friday  by  candles 
stuck  in  the  recesses  of  the  outer  walls  on  the  streets. 

On  the  last  day  of  our  circuit  of  the  lake  we  alighted  at  a 
caravansary  at  Ducargan.  In  the  darkness  it  seemed  a  quiet 
place,  but  in  the  morning  it  was  full  of  the  bustle  of  business. 
The  porches  and  court  of  the  caravansary  were  crowded  with 
men  buying,  sifting,  cleaning,  and  packing  raisins.  What  a 
gaping  and  staring  ensued  as  a  lady  mounted  her  horse! 
They  inferred  from  seeing  but  one  side-stirrup  that  she  had 
only  one  foot.  One  man,  seeing  the  slipper  stirrup,  came  in 
to  say  that  the  lady  had  left  her  shoe  in  the  saddle.  Her 
straw  hat  led  to  the  remark  that  she  had  a  basket  on  her  head. 
"  Why  have  you  surrounded  yoiu  eyes  with  those  things  ?  " 
was  the  query  called  forth  by  the  sight  of  my  spectacles. 


CHAPTER    VI 


THE    KURDISH    RAID 


THE  memorable  Kurdish  raid,  under  the  leadership  of 
Sheik  Obeidullah,  was  causing  great  excitement  in 
Azerbijan  at  the  time  of  our  arrival  in  Persia.  Barricades 
had  been  erected  hastily  in  the  streets  of  Tabriz,  in  anticipa- 
tion of  an  attack,  while  muskets  and  ammunition  were  called 
into  requisition  by  many  of  the  inhabitants.  The  foreign 
population  was  contemplating  removal  across  the  Russian 
frontier.  The  post  had  been  interrupted  for  many  weeks. 
The  telegraph-lines  connecting  with  Urumia  and  Soujbulak 
had  not  then  been  built. 

A  number  of  causes  led  to  this  raid  of  the  Kurds.  The 
latter  felt  that  they  had  various  grievances  against  the  Per- 
sians. Sheik  Obeidullah,  in  September  and  October,  1880, 
set  forth  their  grievances  in  two  communications  to  Dr.  J.  G. 
Cochran,  the  missionary  physician  at  Urumia,  with  a  request 
that  the  British  consul  be  informed  of  them.  The  charges 
were  that  Shuja-id-Doulah  had  beheaded  fifty  Kurds  without 
cause,  and  had  done  damage  to  the  sheik's  villages  to  the 
amount  of  one  hundred  thousand  tomans ;  that  Mo'en-id- 
Doulah  had  seized  the  chiefs  of  Ushnuk,  fined  them  twenty 
thousand  tomans,  kept  their  women  in  custody,  and  inflicted 
other  injuries.*     Hamza  Aga,  another  sheik,  had  a   special 

*  The  authorities  consulted  in  writing  this  account  are  the  reports  of 
Mr.  W.  G.  Abbott,  H.  B.  M.  consul-general  at  Tabriz,  the  diplomatic 
correspondence  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  the  New  York 

109 


110  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

grudge  against  the  governor  of  Soujbulak.  Hamza  Aga  and 
his  followers  had  fled  with  their  booty  from  Turkey  into  Per- 
sia. He  had  accepted  an  invitation  to  a  conference  to  arrange 
with  the  governor,  according  to  custom,  what  portion  of  the 
spoils  should  be  given  him.  Being  imable  to  come  to  terms 
the  governor  commanded  the  soldiers  to  seize  the  aga  and 
put  him  in  chains.  Instantly  the  latter  drew  his  sword,  cut  his 
way  through  the  guards,  slew  four  at  the  gate,  and  escaped 
to  the  mountains.  He  then  got  his  clansmen  ready  for  an 
anticipated  attack,  aroused  other  tribes,  and  sent  word  to 
Sheik  Obeidullah  that  he  was  ready  to  join  him. 

Sheik  Obeidullah  now  felt  himself  in  a  position  to  resent 
the  treatment  he  had  received.  He  was  a  remarkable  man. 
Intrenched  in  his  stronghold  at  Sheem-i-Din,  in  the  district  of 
Nochea,  three  hours'  ride  from  the  Persian  border,  he  lived 
in  state  as  a  king-priest.  Though  simple  in  his  dress  and  food, 
he  had  a  considerable  army  of  retainers  about  him.  All  who 
came  were  fed  at  his  hospitable  board,  while  orphans  even 
were  supported  at  his  charge.  His  disciples  came  to  consult 
him  in  matters  of  religion  and  conscience,  revering  him  as  an 
inspired  guide.  Next  to  the  sultan  and  scherif  of  Mecca  he 
was  the  holiest  person  among  the  Sunnis.  Thousands  were 
ready  to  follow  him,  not  only  as  a  chief,  but  as  the  vicar  of 
God.  He  was  descended  from  Mohammed,  and  claimed  to 
be  of  the  line  of  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad.  As  a  lawgiver  and 
judge  he  was  noted  for  his  virtue,  as  well  as  for  his  impartial 
justice. 

Sheik  Obeidullah  was  ambitious.  He  had  formed  the 
project  of  an  independent  Kurdistan,  after  the  manner  of  Bul- 
garia, uniting  all  the  Kurds  under  his  own  rule.  He  showed 
himself  friendly  to  the  Christian  populations,  declaring  that 
he  would  rule  them  with  equity.     He  cultivated  foreigners, 

"  Tribune,"  New  York  "  Evening  Post,"  and  the  letters  of  Rev.  J.  H. 
Shedd,  D.D.,  Rev.  Benjamin  Labaree,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  W.  L.  Whipple. 


THE  KURDISH  RAID  111 

and  sought  to  enlist  the  pubhc  opinion  of  the  world  on  his 
side. 

The  power  of  Turkey  had  just  been  broken  in  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War.  The  Kurds  were  armed  with  modern  rifles, 
received  partly  as  gifts  from  the  sultan  and  partly  as  the  spoils 
of  the  battle-fields.  They  felt  themselves  strong  enough  to 
be  aggressive.  For  several  years  the  Turkish  government  had 
not  collected  taxes,  and  had  kept  them  on  good  behavior  by 
largesses.  On  the  other  hand^  some  say  that  the  sheik  was 
encouraged  by  the  sultan  to  assert  himself,  as  an  offset  to  a 
plan  of  an  autonomous  Armenia,  and  to  show  that  the  Kurds 
were  the  predominant  and  superior  race  of  the  region. 

Moved  by  such  a  variety  of  motives,  the  Kurds  crossed 
the  Persian  border  in  October,  1880.  One  division,  under 
Sheik  Abdul  Kadir,  a  man  of  passionate  and  cruel  disposi- 
tion, moved  toward  the  south  of  Lake  Urumia.  Ushnuk  and 
Sulduz  furnished  their  contingent.  They  were  joined  by  the 
Mangur  Kurds,  under  Hamza  Aga,  and  by  other  chiefs,  who 
said  they  were  sworn  on  the  Koran  to  fight  until  death.  Souj- 
bulak  was  taken  possession  of  without  a  blow,  the  governor 
and  garrison  fleeing  before  their  approach.  The  imam-juma 
of  the  Sunnis  of  Soujbulak  issued  a  manifesto  declaring  the 
enterprise  z,jahad  or  holy  war  against  the  Shiahs. 

The  Kurds  then  crossed  the  Tatavu  and  attacked  Mian- 
duab.  Half  of  its  inhabitants  hastily  concealed  their  goods 
and  fled,  meanwhile  smearing  their  wives'  and  daughters'  faces 
to  hide  their  attractions.  All  that  remained,  to  the  number  of 
three  thousand  men,  women,  and  children,  were  ruthlessly  put 
to  the  sword.  Shiahs,  Jews,  and  Armenians  alike  were  mas- 
sacred. The  courts  and  house-yards  were  turned  over  and 
search  made  everywhere  for  concealed  valuables.  Household 
goods  were  seized  and  the  houses  burned  ;  only  the  walls  were 
left  remaining.  The  villages  as  far  as  Binab  and  Maragha 
were  plundered  and  burned.     "  Upwards  of  two  thousand  vil- 


112  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

lages  have  been  burned,  and  ten  thousand  persons  are  said 
to  be  homeless,"  wrote  Consul-General  Abbott  in  his  report. 
The  flocks  and  herds  were  driven  off.  The  Kurdish  women, 
vulture-hke,  came  with  their  pack-animals  and  carried  off  the 
prey.  Many  of  the  warriors,  too,  scattered  to  take  back  their 
spoils,  so  that,  out  of  a  horde  reported  from  ten  thousand  to 
thirty  thousand  strong,  but  a  few  thousand  remained  in  the 
district.  This  scattering  proved  that  the  Kurds  were  not 
capable  of  regular  warfare.  The  massacre  was  not  only  a 
crime,  it  was  an  error ;  for  it  aroused  the  Persians  to  the  resis- 
tance of  despair,  and  destroyed  whatever  sympathy  may  have 
been  felt  for  the  Kurds.  It  demonstrated  anew  the  incapacity 
of  the  latter  for  civilized  rule. 

The  attack  found  the  Persians  unprepared.  Anticipating 
no  trouble,  the  garrisons  of  Azerbijan  had  been  sent  to  quell 
distm^bances  in  Khorassan.  The  government  of  Azerbijan  was 
in  a  confused  state.  The  governor  of  Urumia,  after  suffering 
violence,  had  fled.  When  warned  of  the  approaching  danger 
from,  the  Kurds,  an  official  replied  that  he  would  send  twenty 
horsemen  and  capture  Sheik  Obeidullah.  A  telegram  had 
been  sent  by  some  friendly  Kurds  to  the  shah,  informing  him 
that  the  sheik  was  coming,  and  that  as  their  religious  chief 
they  must  obey  his  orders  if  he  came,  and  hoping  the  Persians 
would  intercept  him  before  he  reached  their  district.  This 
telegram  was  never  given  to  the  shah,*  otherwise  he  could 
have  made  ready  his  forces. 

*  An  Armenian  wrote  an  account  of  these  and  other  facts,  giving  the 
names  of  the  delinquent  officials.  This  document  was  presented  to  the 
shah,  who  called  them  to  account.  Shortly  afterward  the  Armenian  was 
attacked  at  night  in  his  own  house  in  Teheran,  and  left  for  dead.  Exam- 
ination showed  that  the  assailants  had  come,  not  to  plunder,  but  to  mur- 
der. The  sequel  illustrates  several  phases  of  Persian  law.  The  shah 
thought  to  execute  the  assailants,  but  the  mujtehids  gave  decision  that  it 
was  not  legal  to  put  a  Mussulman  to  death  for  attacking  a  Christian  ;  that  it 
should  be  arranged  by  the  payment  of  one  hundred  tomans  blood-money. 


THE  KURDISH  RAID  113 

An  army  of  twenty  thousand  soldiers  was  hastened  forward 
from  Teheran,  commanded  by  Hishmat-id-Doulah.  He  died 
en  route,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Sipah  Silar,  Mirza  Husain 
Khan.*  General  Walter  von  Wagner  and  other  Austrian 
officers  accompanied  the  army.  In  the  middle  of  October 
eighteen  hundred  infantry  and  two  thousand  cavalry  reached 
Binab.  A  three  days'  skirmish  with  the  Kurds  resulted  in  the 
defeat  of  the  latter,  with  a  loss  of  two  hundred  killed  and 
many  wounded.  The  Persian  loss  was  reported  as  twenty 
killed.  The  Persian  command  moved  forward  on  November 
4th  and  retook  Soujbulak,  the  Kurds  retiring  to  the  mountains. 

Meanwhile  another  division  of  the  Kurdish  horde  appeared, 
on  October  20th,  at  Mount  Seir,  near  Urumia,  under  Sheik 
ObeiduUah.  The  latter  force  consisted  of  eight  thousand 
horsemen.  In  its  leader's  train  were  three  hundred  mountain 
Nestorians,  under  the  Metropolitan  Mar  Yosef,  of  Nochea, 
who  were  forced  to  come  at  the  command  of  the  sheik.  An 
Armenian,  Simon  Aga,  of  Diarbekir,  also  accompanied  the 
sheik,  ostensibly  to  protect  the  Christians.  The  Kurds  were 
a  very  irregular  body  of  troops,  without  tents  or  rations. 
They  subsisted  on  their  daily  plunder.  On  October  23d 
Consul-General  Abbott,  with  Dr.  Cochran  and  Simon  Aga, 
proceeded  from  the  college  to  the  city,  at  the  request  of  the 
sheik,  to  make  arrangements  for  non-combatants  to  leave  the 
city.      Mr.  Abbott  reports  :t  "I   proceeded,   on  what  I  con- 

The  shah  sentenced  them  to  prison  for  fifteen  years.  Two  years  after- 
ward the  shah  vowed  to  release  a  dozen  prisoners  if  the  aziz-i-sultan  re- 
covered from  sickness,  and  these  prisoners  were  among  the  released  ones. 

*  He  had  been  ambassador  to  Constantinople,  had  accompanied  the  shah 
to  Europe,  was  for  a  time  prime  minister,  or  sadr-azam,  and  had  been  de- 
posed, but  not  executed.  He  was  at  Kasvin,  in  semi-disgrace,  when 
appointed  to  take  command  against  the  Kurds.  He  has  since  died  in 
Khorassan. 

■f  Consular  Report  No.  23.  See  also  Dr.  Shedd's  letters  of  October 
27th  and  December  l6th,  in  the  New  York  "  Evangelist,"  1880. 


114  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

sidered  to  be  an  errand  of  mercy,  toward  the  principal  gate. 
On  arriving  within  one  hundred  yards  I  sent  on  a  guard  to 
announce  the  object  of  my  mission,  but  presently  we  saw  that 
the  Persians  had  opened  fire  upon  him.  In  fact,  within  a  few 
seconds  we  were  all  under  fire,  and  in  the  midst  of  showers 
of  bullets,  which  fell  thickly  on  all  sides.  I  and  my  compan- 
ions beat  a  hasty  retreat  to  the  college,  and  I  owed  my  hfe  to 
the  fleetness  of  my  horse." 

The  citizens  wished  to  surrender  the  city,  and  the  mollas 
sent  a  deputation  seeking  to  deliver  the  city  to  the  Kurds  ;  but 
the  governor,  Ikbal-id-Doulah,  declared  that  "though  all  the 
others  should  surrender,  he  would  be  faithful  to  the  king." 
Though  he  was  disgraced  and  made  a  scapegoat  at  the  end  of 
the  campaign,  yet  he  endeavored,  though  unprepared,  to  drive 
back  the  Kurds.  He  had  under  his  command  two  regiments 
of  ill-fed  and  ill-clothed  soldiers.  These  he  led  forth  ;  but  they 
were  defeated,  losing  two  cannon,  and  for  a  time  were  sur- 
rounded by  the  enemy.  At  this  juncture  the  sheik  might 
easily  have  taken  the  city.  Then  the  governor  sent  to  Dr. 
Cochran,  asking  him  to  request  the  sheik  to  grant  twenty- 
four  hours'  delay  and  the  city  would  be  surrendered  without 
bloodshed.  The  sheik  was  very  friendly  to  Dr.  Cochran,  in 
consequence  of  courtesies  received  during  a  visit  made  to  him 
at  Nochea  in  the  previous  spring.  At  Dr.  Cochran's  request 
the  sheik  reluctantly  granted  the  delay.  This  saved  the  city, 
for  in  the  meantime  the  governor  and  nis  soldiers  extricated 
themselves,  reentered  the  city,  and  prepared  for  its  defense. 
They  fought  bravely,  and  for  three  days  and  nights  there  was 
almost  incessant  firing.  At  one  time  the  Kurds  captured  the 
Charbash  gate  and  the  cannon  within  it,  but  could  not  hold 
their  ground,  though  they  cut  oflf  the  water-supply.  Nego- 
tiations for  surrender  were  again  begun. 

All  this  time  the  Kurds  were  scouring  the  plain,  plundering 
the  villages,  carrying  off  grain,  cattle,  and  household  goods,  as 


THE  KURDISH  RAID  115 

well  as  money,  and  killing  many  of  the  defenseless  inhabitants. 
The  sheik  desired  to  protect  the  Christian  population,  but 
in  such  barbarous  warfare  regulations  were  poorly  obeyed. 
Twenty-seven  Christian  villages  were  pillaged,  fifty  Christians 
killed,  and  eight  hundred  families  suffered  partial  or  total  loss 
of  property.  Nine  of  the  Protestant  congregations  were 
broken  up.  One  of  those  who  suffered  violence  was  Pastor 
Shimun,  moderator  of  the  Synod.  He  and  Babilla,  a  theo- 
logical student,  were  in  the  lodge  of  his  vineyard  near  Degala. 
Mohammed  Sadik,  son  of  the  sheik,  and  one  thousand  horse- 
men came  suddenly  upon  the  village,  A  party  of  them  were 
welcomed  to  the  lodge  and  told  to  take  all  or  anything  they 
wished.  After  sitting  a  short  time,  one  of  the  Kurds  said, 
"  Why  don't  we  kill  these  people  ?  "  and  stabbed  Pabilla,  who 
cast  himself  from  the  roof  and  died  of  his  injuries.  Pastor 
Shimun  was  also  stabbed  and  left  for  dead.  After  that  they 
attacked  the  village.  The  number  of  Shiahs  outraged  and 
murdered  was  never  estimated. 

On  November  3d  Tamur  Pasha,  of  Maku,  arrived  with  five 
thousand  soldiers  and  relieved  the  city.  For  some  days  the 
two  forces  skirmished.  Then  the  Kurds  attacked  the  Persian 
camp  and  were  repulsed  with  loss.  Being  discouraged  by 
this,  and  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  Sheik  Abdul  Kadir  at  Souj- 
bulak,  they  broke  camp  on  November  i  ith  and  hastened  back 
to  their  mountain  fastnesses. 

At  their  departure  the  Shiahs  began  to  take  vengeance  on 
the  Sunnis  of  the  plain  of  Urumia,  who  had  helped  the  Kurds 
to  pillage  Shiah  villages.  Many  of  the  five  thousand  families 
of  Sunnis  in  the  district  fled  with  the  retreating  Kurds.  Those 
who  remained  and  were  discovered  were  killed  and  their 
villages  plundered.  Not  content  with  this,  the  lawless  soldiery 
of  Tamur  Pasha  robbed  and  harassed  and  maltreated  the  Per- 
sian villagers  who  had  escaped  the  Kurds,  levying  on  them 
for  whatever  they  wished.     A  writer  in  the  Augsburg  "All- 


116  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

gemeine  Zeitung  "  says :  "  They  dispersed  themselves  about 
the  country,  and  committed  such  atrocities,  even  on  their  own 
people,  Shiahs  and  Nestorians,  and  also  on  women,  as  cannot 
be  described.  At  first  the  aga  beheaded  every  Kurd  who  fell 
into  his  power,  even  amusing  himself  by  cutting  off  their  heads 
with  his  own  hand.  Later  he  beheaded  about  forty,  until  his 
arm  was  tired,  when  he  left  the  work  to  others.  Visitors  to 
his  camp  saw  a  row  of  prisoners  who  had  just  had  their 
tongues  cut  out."  Shortly  afterward  the  Sipah  Silar,  with  an 
army  under  Austrian  officers,  arrived  from  Soujbulak  and  dis- 
tributed his  troops  along  the  Turkish  frontier  for  the  winter. 

The  condition  of  the  missionaries  during  this  time  was  very 
critical,  shut  off  for  six  weeks  from  all  communication  v»'ith  the 
outer  world,  and  surrounded  by  such  dangers.  Dr.  Cochran 
and  others,  with  the  college  students,  girls'  school,  and  five 
hundred  refugees,  v/ere  in  the  college  grounds.  "  The  school- 
girls were  allowed  to  leave  the  city.  Eighty-four  little  ones, 
each  carrying  a  quilt  on  her  back  and  a  book  under  her  arm, 
with  Miss  Dean  and  three  men  as  an  escort,  marched  to  the 
city  gate,  the  Kurds  outside  and  the  Persians  inside  sending 
stray  shots  among  them  all  the  time.  They  reached  the  col- 
lege without  injury."  There,  as  a  guest,  Avas  the  British  Consul- 
General  Abbott,  who  had  come  to  investigate  the  condition  of 
the  Nestorians,  yet  whose  visit  was  connected  in  the  public 
mind  in  various  ways  with  the  coming  of  the  Kurds.  The  com- 
bined Union  Jack  and  Stars  and  Stripes  waved  over  the  gate 
of  the  college  premises.  The  college  and  scir  were,  within  the 
Kurdish  lines.  Though  the  sheik  sent  a  message  assuring 
them  of  their  safety,  yet  they  were  frequently  in  danger  from 
the  accidents  of  war  and  the  uncontrollable  plundering  instinct 
of  the  horde.  Once  a  band  of  fifty  Kurds  attacked  the  col- 
lege, trying  to  break  down  its  gates ;  but  they  were  ordered 
away  by  an  officer  who  came  up.  Cannon-balls  from  the 
Persian  side  flew  past  the  college,  and  one  was  found  within 


THE  KURDISH  RAID  117 

its  grounds.  Many  stray  shots  came  near  them.  Rev.  W.  L. 
Whipple  and  the  refugees  in  the  city  premises  had  hazardous 
experiences  with  rifle-balls,  the  bullets  buzzing  about  them  and 
falling  into  the  yard.  Several  came  through  the  windows  of 
the  room  in  which  Mr.  Whipple  was  sitting,  and  one  passed 
over  his  head  while  he  was  eating  dinner. 

Nor  did  the  danger  cease  when  the  Kurds  departed.  The 
friendly  attitude  of  the  sheik  and  his  protection  aroused  the 
suspicions  of  the  Persians,  and  gave  occasion  to  opponents  to 
insinuate  that  the  missionaries  were  in  league  with  the  Kurds 
and  had  invited  them.  In  these  excitements  the  fact  that  Dr. 
Cochran's  intercession  had  saved  the  city  was  forgotten,  and 
many  were  ready  to  believe  the  slanders.  The  slightest  influ- 
ence might  have  involved  them  in  destruction.  They  ascribed 
their  preservation  to  the  "good  hand  of  God  upon  them." 
One  of  the  ladies  wrote  home  during  this  time  of  danger :  "  Do 
not  grieve  for  us  ;  for  if  we  die,  where  could  we  better  fall  than 
here  at  our  post  of  duty  ?  "  In  those  trying  times  the  friend- 
ship of  General  Wagner,  a  Magyar  Protestant,  was  most  valu- 
able, and  was  highly  appreciated. 

Once  a  company  of  mollas  went  to  the  Sheik  ul  Islam, 
proposing  to  celebrate  Muharram  by  a  massacre  of  the  Chris- 
tians and  missionaries.*  He  replied :  "  I  have  three  things  to 
say:  (i)  Remember  that  if  the  missionaries  had  not  induced 
the  sheik  to  wait  a  day  he  would  have  taken  the  city,  and  we 
all  should  have  been  massacred.  (2)  Remember  how  many 
of  our  people  these  men  saved  from  starvation  in  the  famine. 
(3)  Think  of  the  consequences!  If  you  do  this  we  shall  be 
destroyed  and  Islam  shall  fall." 

Mr.  Abbott  and  Mr.  Wright  left  Urumia  October  8th,  with 

a  guard  of  horsemen  from  Sheik  Obeidullah  and  a  letter  to 

Sheik  Abdul  Kadir.     At  Soujbulak  they  were  entertained  by 

the  leaders  of  the  Kurdish  army,  and  under  a  guard  of  three 

*  Mrs.  Sheckl,  in  "  Woman's  Work  for  Woman." 


118  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

hundred  cavalry  were  conducted  to  the  Persian  hnes.  Hamza 
Aga  was  chief  of  their  escort.  They  described  him  as  a  per- 
fect Kurd,  brave  and  chivalrous,  but  bloodthirsty  and  cruel 
when  his  passions  were  aroused.^ 

It  was  thought  that  the  Kurds  would  renew  their  raids  in 
the  spring,  and  military  preparations  were  made  in  anticipation 
of  that  event.  Negotiations  were  carried  on  between  the  Per- 
sian and  the  Turkish  governments.  An  envoy  extraordinary 
was  sent  from  Constantinople,  with  an  autograph  letter  from 
the  sultan  to  the  shah  expressing  regret  for  what  his  subjects 
had  done.  The  sheik  was  summoned  to  appear  at  Constan- 
tinople to  answer  for  his  conduct. 

A  strong  Persian  force  wintered  at  Urumia.  In  the  way 
habitual  to  them  they  committed  all  sorts  of  ravages,  cutting 
down  the  orchards  for  firewood,  besides  quartering  themselves 
on  the  inhabitants.  In  the  spring  an  army  from  the  other 
provinces  was  mobilizing  at  Tabriz. 

An  energetic  man,  Mohammed  Rahim  Khan,  Ala-id-Doulah, 
later  the  Amir-i-Nizam,  was  sent  as  governor  of  Azerbijan. 
His  fame  preceded  him  and  filled  the  people  with  a  whole- 
some fear.  When  he  arrived  at  Zenjan  he  found  a  man  creat- 
ing a  corner  in  grain.  The  fall  of  the  man's  head  effected  an 
instantaneous  decline  in  the  price  of  the  commodity.  The 
news  of  this  worked  like  magic  in  Tabriz.  The  "bulls"  of 
the  grain  market  were  henceforth  afraid  to  hoard  foodstuffs 
or  make  gain  out  of  the  life  of  the  people. 

He  also  meted  out  condign  punishment  to  the  traitors  of 
the  preceding  campaign.  Jalil  Khan,  himself  a  Kurd,  had 
been  commander  of  the  Persian  troops  at  Mianduab  before 
the  massacre.  When  the  Kurds  came  against  the  place  he 
led  his  troops  out  at  one  side  of  the  city,  while  the  Kurds 
entered  at  the  other.  Then  he  turned  and  helped  to  pillage 
and  massacre  the  defenseless  inhabitants.  In  the  spring  he 
surrendered  to  the  Persians  under  promise  of  pardon.     He 


THE  KURDISH  RAID  119 

was  brought  to  Tabriz  and  shot  from  a  cannon's  mouth.  His 
head  was  placed  on  a  sword  and  borne  through  the  bazaars, 
every  shopkeeper  giving  a  piece  of  money  to  the  executioner. 
His  sons  were  involved  in  the  same  destruction.  Around  the 
neck  of  one  a  long  rope  was  looped  loosely.  Each  end  of  it 
was  seized  by  a  soldier.  Then  twenty  others,  appointed  for 
the  purpose,  beat  and  abused  him  until  the  gradually  tighten- 
ing rope  relieved  his  misery.  When  we  remember  their  trea- 
son, and  their  participation  in  the  horrible  massacre  of  those 
whom  they  were  set  to  defend,  we  need  not  stop  to  condemn 
the  manner  in  which  death  was  meted  out  to  them. 

The  Amir-i- Nizam  led  the  army  from  Tabriz.  His  entrance 
to  Urumia  was  celebrated  by  the  sacrifice  of  thousands  of  sheep 
along  the  route  of  his  approach.  According  to  custom,  he  de- 
clared the  sacrifice  a  gift  to  the  poor.  Then  there  arose  a  great 
uproar  and  disturbance,  which  soon  assumed  the  proportions 
of  a  riot.  This  was  occasioned  by  the  people  striving  for  the 
carcasses,  and  almost  tearing  one  another  to  pieces  to  obtain 
them ;  and  the  soldiery  had  to  interfere  to  quiet  the  outbreak. 

The  Persian  troops  were  stationed  in  Mergawar,  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Kurdish  mountains.  The  Osmanli  troops 
advanced  from  the  west.  It  was  probably  his  serious  position 
between  two  armies  that  led  Sheik  ObeiduUah,  who  at  first 
declined  the  invitation  of  the  sultan,  finally  to  conclude  to 
visit  his  Majesty.  A  powerful  escort  conducted  him  to  Con- 
stantinople, ostensibly  as  a  guard  of  honor,  but  really  as  his 
custodians.  A  regiment  of  cavalry  and  two  batteries  of  artil- 
lery gave  an  appearance  of  great  pomp  to  his  coming.  The 
officials  of  the  towns  went  out  to  meet  and  honor  him ;  the 
people  crowded  the  streets  to  receive  him.  They  supposed 
he  would  be  sent  back  as  governor-general  of  Kurdistan.  At 
Constantinople  he  was  received  in  great  state,  loaded  with 
presents,  and  treated  as  a  noble  guest.  But  soon  it  was 
apparent  that  the  palace  assigned  him  was  his  prison. 


120  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

Among  those  whom  nothing  could  deter  from  the  open  field 
was  Hamza  Aga.  He  had  vowed  to  carry  on  the  war  until 
death,  and,  though  opposed  by  greatly  superior  numbers,  he 
initiated  a  campaign  of  destruction,  with  flying  horsemen 
harassing  the  enemy  at  many  points.  He  came  into  the  re- 
gion of  Soujbulak  with  two  hundred  horsemen.  The  governor 
of  Soujbulak,  Hasan  Ali  Khan,  Silar-il-Askar,  a  Kurd  of  Garu, 
had  under  his  command  a  Persian  force  of  four  thousand, 
with  which  he  could  easily  have  conquered  Hamza  Aga.  He 
preferred,  however,  his  own  way  of  dealing  with  the  delinquent. 
He  sent  a  deputation  to  Hamza  Aga,  desiring  to  treat  with 
him,  promising  him,  if  he  would  swear  allegiance,  authority 
over  southern  Kurdistan,  on  condition  of  paying  a  small  an- 
nual revenue.  He  invited  the  chief  to  a  conference  at  a  great 
feast,  assuring  him  of  safety  by  an  oath  and  a  kiss  on  the 
Koran,  which  he  sent  to  him.  Relying  on  this  sacred  and 
inviolable  pledge,  Hamza  Aga,  with  fourteen  of  his  men,  be- 
came the  guests  of  the  governor.  They  were  received  with 
all  possible  respect.  The  whole  camp  united  to  show  them 
honor.  In  the  tent  they  feasted,  smoked  the  pipe  of  peace, 
and  made  their  terms.  At  a  given  signal  the  governor  retired 
to  an  adjoining  tent,  where  he  concealed  himself.  The  soldiers 
opened  fire  upon  the  tent  in  which  Hamza  Aga  was  seated, 
and  riddled  it  with  bullets.  Immediately  recognizing  the 
treachery,  he  determined  to  sell  his  life  as  dearly  as  possible. 
Issuing  from  the  tent,  he  hewed  right  and  left  with  his  sword, 
and  slew  a  dozen  before  the  treacherous  bullets  felled  him. 
His  head  was  cut  oflF  and  sent  to  the  commander-in-chief  at 
Urumia,  and  the  governor  was  counted  worthy  of  double 
honor. 

After  this  the  army  w^as  turned  against  some  minor  tribes  in 
Persia.  One  of  these,  the  Shakoik  Kurds  of  the  mountains 
near  Salmas,  had  been  infesting  the  passes  and  making  the 
roads  unsafe.     Their  sheik  was  Ali  Khan.     In  the  previous 


THE  KURDISH  R^ID  121 

year  he  was  nominally  on  the  side  of  the  Persians,  and  gave 
a  quota  of  soldiers  to  the  shah ;  but  it  was  beheved  that  for 
one  he  gave  in  loyalty,  he  gave  five  to  the  enemy.  The  cam- 
paign against  him  opened  in  August.  In  the  first  action  the 
Persians  were  worsted ;  five  hundred  were  slain,  the  Kurds 
losing  in  captured  about  two  hundred,  and  fifty  heads  were 
cut  off  and  sent  as  trophies  to  Urumia.  The  final  result  was 
that  these  and  other  Kurds  were  brought  into  subjection,  and 
since  then  they  have  made  little  disturbance  in  Persia. 

Sheik  Ali  Khan  was  afterward  brought  to  Tabriz.  He 
occupied  a  small  house  under  a  guard,  with  permission  to  go 
about  on  foot,  but  not  to  mount  a  horse.  In  company  with 
some  ladies  of  the  mission,  and  Dr.  Samuel,  his  physician,  I 
called  on  him  and  his  khanum.  The  latter  came  into  the 
room  with  uncovered  face  and  sat  down  in  the  company. 
The  sheik  said  he  had  been  in  a  hundred  battles,  and  that 
the  scars  on  his  face  were  the  results  of  these  contests.  He 
said  he  had  known  fifteen  men  who  did  not  deserve  as  honor- 
able a  death  as  decapitation ;  so  he  had  thrown  them  down, 
put  stones  on  their  heads,  and  stamped  them  to  death  with 
his  foot.  One  man  he  had  strapped  and  put  in  water  in  the 
depth  of  winter  until  he  froze  to  death.  The  sheik's  eyes 
were  by  this  time  dim  with  age,  and  he  faintly  discerned  in 
the  cheek  of  one  of  the  ladies  a  dimple.  He  inquired  in  what 
battle  she  got  that  scar! 

The  story  of  Sheik  ObeiduUah  is  so  interesting  that  we 
must  follow  it  to  its  close.  In  Constantinople  he  seemed  to 
give  himself  up  to  religious  meditation,  his  one  desire  being  to 
visit  the  sacred  shrines.  He  petitioned  the  sultan  to  be  allowed 
to  make  a  pilgrimage,  and  under  this  pretense  made  prepa- 
rations for  his  escape.  A  correspondent  of  the  New  York 
"  Evening  Post "  thus  describes  his  escape :  "  During  the  fast 
of  Ramadan,  by  giving  out  that  he  would  pass  the  whole  time 
in  meditation  and  prayer,  in  imitation  of  the  example  set  by 


122  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

the  Prophet,  he  secured  his  chamber  against  the  entry  of  any 
one  who  might  have  prematurely  made  known  the  fact  of  his 
flight.  He  thus  gained  a  clear  start  of  all  pursuit  of  over 
twenty-seven  days.  A  jug  of  water  and  a  loaf  were  placed  each 
night  at  the  door  of  his  chamber,  and  it  only  required  that  these 
should  disappear  regularly — as  was  easily  managed  through  a 
devoted  attendant — for  those  on  guard  to  imagine  that  the 
sheik  was  always  safe  within.  It  was  only  on  the  sultan's 
noticing  his  absence  from  the  service  at  the  mosque  and  from 
the  subsequent  levee  at  the  palace  that  messengers  were  sent 
to  bring  ObeiduUah  to  the  imperial  presence,  but  found  that 
the  bird  had  flown." 

The  sheik  hastened  through  the  Caucasus  and  safely 
reached  his  castle.  Here  his  sons  collected  a  force  of  several 
thousand  men  and  prepared  to  resist  the  Turkish  troops.  But 
the  rising  of  the  Hekri  tribe  of  Kurds  against  him,  on  account 
of  an  old  blood-feud,  led  him  to  despair  of  success,  and  he 
surrendered  to  the  Turkish  authorities.  His  sons  again  at- 
tempted to  release  him  from  the  Turkish  guards  on  the  road 
to  Mosul ;  but  this  proving  futile,  he  was  sent  to  Mecca,  where 
he  died  in  October,  1883. 

One  result  of  the  Kurdish  raid  was  the  establishment  of 
diplomatic  relations  between  the  United  States  and  Persia. 
The  danger  to  the  missionaries  in  Urumia  drew  the  attention 
of  the  government  to  Persia.  Hon.  R.  R.  Dawes,  a  member 
of  Congress,  and  brother  of  Mrs.  Shedd,  of  Urumia,  took 
special  interest  in  the  matter.  A  despatch  in  the  press  from 
Teheran  announced :  "  There  is  great  excitement  among  the 
inhabitants  of  Urumia  against  the  Christians — especially 
against  the  American  missionaries — for  their  supposed  com- 
plicity with  the  Kurds."  On  this  version  of  the  aflFair  being 
received,  Mr.  William  M.  Evarts,  Secretary  of  State,  through 
Mr.  Lowell,  requested  the  Earl  of  Granville  to  extend  her 
British  Majesty's  special  protection  to  the  American  mission- 


THE  KURDISH  RAID  123 

aries.  Despatches  from  Teheran  reached  the  commander-in- 
chief  in  Urumia  just  when  the  missionaries  were  having  a 
formal  interview  with  him  to  dispel  the  unjust  suspicions.  "  His 
Highness  proceeded  to  assure  them  of  the  confidence  of  the 
shah's  government  in  the  integrity  and  sincerity  of  all  their 
actions,  and  its  appreciation  of  their  benevolent  labors  among 
the  subjects  of  his  Majesty  the  Shah."  The  prime  minister  of 
Persia  replied  to  Mr.  Abbott  in  these  words:  "I  know  these 
reports  to  be  false.  I  know  these  men  are  our  friends,  and 
what  good  things  they  did  for  our  people  during  the  famine." 
Prince  Malcolm  Khan,  Persian  minister  to  England,  wrote  to 
Mr.  Lowell :  "  I  have  always  gladly  availed  myself  of  every 
opportunity  to  lend  my  feeble  aid  to  those  apostles  of  a  civili- 
zation which  I  so  earnestly  desire  to  see  introduced  into  my 
country."  Consul-General  Abbott,  in  his  official  report,  says : 
"  Such  reports  are  mischievous  slanders,  completely  devoid  of 
truth.  The  United  States  have  every  reason  to  be  proud  of 
men  who,  at  all  times  conspicuous  for  their  practical  piety, 
displayed  at  Urumia,  amid  famine,  pestilence,  and  war,  a 
coolness  and  pluck  which  will  never  be  forgotten  by  those 
who  were  present  during  that  season  of  trial."  His  Majesty 
the  Shah  showed  his  appreciation  of  Dr.  Cochran's  conduct  by 
honoring  him  with  the  decoration  of  the  Lion  and  the  Sun. 

After  the  danger  was  past  the  conviction  remained  that 
the  United  States  owed  its  citizens  in  Persia  efficient  protec- 
tion. Hon.  Andrew  G.  Curtin,  advocating  eloquently  the  es- 
tablishment of  diplomatic  relations,  said  on  the  floor  of  Con- 
gress :  "  We  have  more  missionaries  in  Persia  than  has  any 
other  country.  Surely  those  of  our  citizens  who  in  self-sacri- 
fice have  penetrated  the  darkness  which  has  covered  that 
historic  land,  given  them  the  Bible  and  its  precepts,  and 
established  schools,  deserve  the  active  protection  of  this  gov- 
ernment." 

In  August,  1882,  Congress  passed  a  bill  for  the  appointment 


124  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND    CUSTOMS 

of  a  consul-general  and  charge  d'affaires  at  Teheran.  In  the 
following  year  the  office  was  changed  to  that  of  a  minister 
resident.  Rev.  Henry  H.  Jessup,  D.D.,  a  missionary  at 
Beirut,  declined  the  position,  and  Mr.  S.  G.  W.  Benjamin, 
son  of  a  former  missionary  in  Turkey,  and  an  author  of  fine 
literary  tastes,  was  appointed  the  first  representative  of  the 
United  States  to  the  court  of  Persia,  arriving  June  9,  1883. 

Up  to  the  present  time  six  gentlemen  have  occupied  the 
position,  with  considerable  intervals  in  which  no  minister  was 
at  the  post.  This  has  gone  far  to  neutralize  the  benefit  ex- 
pected from  the  appointment.  The  mere  statement  of  the 
fact  is  a  severe  criticism  on  the  diplomatic  service  of  the  United 
States.  What  continuity  of  policy,  what  development  of  com- 
mercial enterprise,  what  cementing  of  personal  relations  with 
the  ministers  of  the  shah,  could  there  be  when  the  terms  of 
service  of  the  American  ministers  averaged  less  than  two  years 
each?  Long  terms  are  specially  necessary  in  the  American 
diplomatic  service,  since  our  representatives  serve  no  appren- 
ticeship. Contrast  it  with  the  Russian  service.  A  young  man 
enters  that  service,  learns  the  languages  and  customs  of  the 
country,  rises  through  the  various  grades,  until  finally  he 
becomes  consul-general  or  minister,  thoroughly  qualified  for 
his  position — a  trained  diplomatist.  Then,  with  his  agents  in 
every  important  city  of  the  kingdom  keeping  him  informed  of 
every  item  of  commercial  or  political  importance,  and  with  a 
government  with  a  fixed  policy  standing  behind  him,  he  is 
master  of  the  situation.  Other  European  and  even  Asiatic 
countries  follow  the  .same  method.  There  is  in  this  matter 
urgent  call  for  reform  in  the  consular  and  diplomatic  service 
of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  VII 

MOUNTAIN  ARMENIANS  AND  NOMADS 

LYING  to  the  north  of  Tabriz  and  skirting  the  Aras  River 
V  is  a  region  called  Karadagh.  Its  name  signifies  "  black 
mountain,"  and  indicates  truly  its  character.  Ten  hours'  ride 
from  Tabriz  brought  us,  at  an  altitude  of  eight  thousand  feet, 
to  the  summit  of  the  range,  which,  continuing  eastward,  reaches 
an  apex  in  the  lordly  Savalan,  at  an  altitude  of  fifteen  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  sixty  feet.  Through  these  wild  mountains 
our  course  led  over  high  and  precipitous  spurs  and  through 
dark,  narrow  gorges — a  terror  to  caravans,  but  a  delight  in 
themselves.  Through  the  Joshin  Narrows  we  waded  the  bed 
of  a  pure  mountain  stream,  whose  banks  at  some  places  were 
covered  with  shrubbery  and  flowers,  while  at  other  places  high 
rocks  excluded  the  sun.  On  the  third  day  the  hills  bore 
a  sparse  growth  of  stunted  pine,  and  on  the  lower  ranges 
oaks  formed  shaded  avenues.  We  lunched  on  moss-covered 
rocks,  with  faded  leaves  around  us,  and  a  rivulet  rippling 
by  our  side.  In  contrast  with  the  bleak,  barren  mountains  of 
Persia  in  general,  the  scenery  was  quite  a  refreshment.  The 
meadows  and  groves  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  hillsides,  with 
the  elderberry  and  blackberry,  currant  and  thorn  bushes  filling 
up  the  nooks,  the  new  clearings  with  the  hacked  or  charred  oak- 
trees  still  standing  in  the  midst  of  the  golden  wheat,  the  icy 
springs,  the  hollowed-tree  watering-troughs,  the  banks  of  the 
Aras  clothed  in  green — all  presented  a  homelike  view  which 

'25 


126  PERSUN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

was  a  surprise  to  us.  Yet  the  varieties  of  wild  flowers — roses, 
snowballs,  etc. — gave  a  luxuriance  of  color  and  perfume  not 
often  seen  in  Western  lands.  Folk-lore,  too,  added  its  charm. 
A  certain  sweetly  scented  posy,  we  were  informed,  was  created 
by  Christ  on  the  day  of  his  ascension  from  a  near  hill,  to  be  a 
perpetual  and  fragrant  memorial  of  him.  A  copious  spring 
gushes  forth  from  the  foot  of  a  hill,  on  which  are  a  shrine  and 
the  altar  of  a  saint.  It  proceeds  from  his  tomb,  and  renews 
the  faith  of  all  who  quaff  it.  Another  tradition  varies  the 
story,  and  tells  us  that  Jesus  was  buried  on  this  hill,  and  Ali 
on  the  opposite  one,  on  the  summits  of  which  they  at  times 
appear  and  converse  with  each  other.  As  a  proof  that  Ali 
was  in  this  region  they  show  the  prints  of  his  horse's  hoofs, 
perfectly  formed  in  the  solid  rock.  The  relic  is  covered  with 
a  stone  hut  for  its  protection. 

When  we  were  descending  into  the  valley  beyond,  a  fog, 
driven  by  the  wind,  blew  up  and  enveloped  us.  This  called 
forth  the  story  of  a  man  from  Ispahan  who  was  traveling  here 
and  saw  a  fog  for  the  first  time.  It  seemed  to  him  the  attack 
of  some  subtle  and  intangible  foe,  and  he  turned  and  ran  from 
it  to  the  main  body  of  the  caravan,  crying  out  that  an  evil 
jinnee  was  assaulting  them. 

Karadagh  has  eighteen  districts.  We  passed  through  many 
of  them,  observing  the  character  of  the  country  and  its  people. 
It  is  rich  in  natural  resources.  Its  timber  lands  have  supplied 
charcoal  to  the  markets  of  Tabriz  for  centuries.  Walnut  for 
veneering  is  exported  to  Europe.  Copper  is  mined  at  Asta- 
mol,  Gushlak,  and  other  places.  At  Avon  and  Missan  the 
villagers  dig  out  iron,  and  the  blacksmiths  prepare  plowshares, 
horseshoes,  and  other  implements  for  their  domestic  use.  The 
mineral  springs,  famed  for  their  medicinal  qualities,  are,  ac- 
cording to  the  native  expression,  large  enough  to  run  a  mill 
and  hot  enough  to  boil  an  egg.  The  crop  of  cornel-berries 
was  specially  abundant.     Many  women  were  thronging  the 


MOUNTAIN  ARMENIANS  AND   NOMADS  127 

groves  picking  and  seeding  them,  and  spreading  them  in  the 
sun  to  dry. 

The  population  is  chiefly  Mohammedan.  The  Armenian 
villages  are  scattered  in  groups  among  them.  Karadagh  was 
once  a  part  of  Pers-Armenia ;  now  the  roughest  and  poorest 
places  are  held  by  the  Armenians.  From  the  fair  and  fertile 
river-banks  they  have  been  driven.  Every  well-built  and  pros- 
perous place  is,  without  inquiry,  known  to  be  Mohammedan. 
As  we  approach  an  Armenian  village,  whether  of  ten  or  a 
hundred  houses,  we  find  the  characteristics  the  same.  The 
houses  are  arranged  one  above  the  other,  so  that  the  flat  roof 
of  one  house  is  the  front  yard  of  the  one  above.  For  safety 
the  houses  are  huddled  together.  A  common  spring,  from 
which  the  women  are  seen  coming  with  earthenware  jugs  on 
their  shoulders,  sends  forth  a  stream  which  is  bordered  by  a 
few  truck  patches.  Beside  the  village  each  farmer  has  a 
threshing-floor,  a  surface  of  leveled  ground,  with  a  barn  behind 
it.  They  form,  like  the  houses,  giant  flights  of  steps  ascending 
the  hillside. 

We  usually  lodged  with  the  kand-khuda  or  village  master ; 
for  entertaining  is  part  of  his  prerogative,  and  his  house  is  the 
best  in  each  village.  It  consists  of  a  single  room,  and  that  a 
half-cellar,  for  the  back  wall  is  in  the  hill.  It  is  built  of  uncut 
stone  and  mud-plaster.  Large  unhewn  oak  rafters,  covered 
with  oak  planks,  support  the  mud-roof.  The  floor  is  simply 
mother  earth  packed  down,  and  often  not  even  leveled.  A 
small  low  door  and  a  diminutive  skylight  are  the  only  aper- 
tures. There  is  no  sign  of  a  window,  much  less  of  glass  for  it. 
In  the  center  of  the  floor  is  the  tandur;  at  one  end  a  fireplace, 
with  imperfect  flue.  The  smoke  from  the  oven,  fireplace,  and 
black  naphtha-lamp  has  coated  the  walls  and  rafters  with  soot. 
The  furniture  consists  of  an  iron  tripod  for  cooking,  some 
tinned  copper  vessels,  a  tea-kettle,  a  primitive  spinning-wheel, 
a  carding-comb,  a  weaving-frame,  a  pile  of  bedding,  and  a  few 


128  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

cheap  carpets.  The  naphtha-lamp  is  earthenware,  and  is  in 
the  shape  of  a  shoe.  The  oil  is  poured  in  at  the  shoe-top, 
the  handle  is  at  the  heel,  and  the  wick  at  the  turned-up  toe. 
It  has  no  chimney,  and  emits  an  odor  and  smoke  which  pre- 
clude any  desire  to  bum  the  midnight  oil.  The  room  is  cool 
in  summer  and  warm  in  winter.  By  the  side  of  it  is  a  stable 
similarly  constructed,  only  with  the  light  more  completely  ex- 
cluded. At  one  end  is  a  raised  platform,  a  favorite  place  for 
sleeping  in  winter,  in  consequence  of  the  heat  engendered  by 
the  neighboring  animals.  Along  the  house  is  a  covered  porch, 
partially  inclosed  with  boards  or  intertwined  branches.  The 
yard,  which  is  about  twenty  feet  square,  is  inclosed  by  a  sim- 
ilar fence.  In  this  yard  cows,  buffaloes,  sheep,  goats,  and 
donkeys  gather  for  the  night.  The  calves  and  cats,  with  the 
dogs,  guests,  family,  and  fleas,  occupy  the  front  porch  in  sum- 
mer, and  the  hens  are  invited  into  the  room  to  roost. 

The  family  soon  attracted  our  attention.  The  men  are 
rugged  and  work-worn  farmers.  Some  wear  curious  breeches 
of  half-tanned  sheepskin.  The  common  shoe  is  the  charukh 
or  sandal,  which  each  man  manufactures  for  himself.  A  piece 
of  leather  is  cut  in  oval  shape,  the  edge  is  bent  up  all  around, 
and  holes  are  cut  in  the  edges  and  loops  inserted,  through  which 
the  shoestring  passes.  The  women  are  hardy  and  muscular, 
with  the  rosy  flush  of  health.  The  men  do  the  bulk  of  the 
hard  work,  yet  the  women  do  not  shirk  the  spade  or  the  heavy 
burden.  Their  dress,  generally  of  red  calico,  ends  above  the 
ankle.  The  head-dress  is  sometimes  a  square  of  calico  or  silk, 
covering  head  and  chin,  and  tied  under  the  arms.  At  other 
times  a  tall  wooden  frame  is  placed  on  the  crown  of  the  head 
and  covered  with  as  many  as  twenty  handkerchiefs  similar  to 
those  in  use  by  the  Turkoman  women.  The  head-dress  is 
worn  continually,  but  the  face  is  not  veiled,  and  social  inter- 
course is  unrestricted.  Their  love  of  ornaments  is  displayed 
in  earrings  of  twenty  or  thirty  silver  coins,  and  in  bangles  and 


MOUNTAIN  ARMENIANS  AND  NOMADS  129 

necklaces  of  coins  also.  The  boys  and  girls  are  of  a  pure 
Caucasian  type,  fair  and  beautiful  even  in  their  homespun 
and  untidiness. 

There  is  a  great  lack  of  variety  in  their  food.  Wheat  and 
barley  bread,  millet  porridge,  eggs,  milk  and  its  products,  a 
few  vegetables,  and  fewer  fruits  constitute  their  meager  bill  of 
fare.  The  drudgery  of  dish-washing  is  unknown.  Meat  is 
rarely  eaten,  except  when  an  animal  is  diseased  or  injured  and 
must  be  killed,  or  when  a  sacrifice  is  offered.  In  the  course 
of  a  month  we  had  meat  only  two  or  three  times.  A  diet  of 
bread  and  cheese  or  curd,  bread  and  milk,  etc.,  is  interrupted 
only  by  frequent  fasts,  which  exclude  all  animal  products.  A 
large  part  of  the  household  occupation  consists  in  attending 
to  the  milch  cows,  sheep,  and  goats.  Milking  the  latter  is 
quite  a  comical  sight.  The  gate  of  the  goat-pen  is  so  low 
that  the  goat  must  bend  its  head  to  enter.  It  is  held  in  the 
gateway  by  one  woman,  while  another  woman  milks  it.  All 
milk  is  heated  immediately,  and  most  of  it  is  made  into  ?natsoon 
and  cheese.  The  niatsoon  or  yogurt  is  a  curd  made  by  put- 
ting rennet  in  the  heated  milk  and  letting  it  sour  for  several 
days.  From  the  soured  milk  butter  is  made.  There  are  sev- 
eral kinds  of  churns.  One  is  a  large  jar.  When  filled  a  piece 
of  leather  is  bound  over  its  mouth,  and  it  is  then  rolled  back 
and  forward  on  the  ground.  The  other  kind  is  a  hollowed 
trunk  of  a  tree.  It  is  suspended  by  ropes  and  moves  as  a 
swing.  Cheese  is  made  by  allowing  the  whey  to  flow  off  with- 
out pressure.  It  is  preserved  by  salting,  and  is  sometimes 
mixed  with  herbs  and  buried. 

Spinning  and  weaving  dress-goods,  carpets,  and  other  fabrics 
are  universal  household  industries.  Though  Manchester  prints 
adorn  the  wife,  yet  she  still  "  layeth  her  hands  to  the  spindle, 
and  her  hands  hold  the  distaff."  Wool  is  carded  by  pulling  it 
over  a  pair  of  long-toothed  brass  combs.  Wool  and  silk  are 
sometimes  spun  by  a  distaff  whirled  by  hand.    More  frequently 


130  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

a  spinning-wheel  is  used ;  the  spinner  sits  on  the  floor  and 
manages  the  thread  partly  with  her  feet.  In  many  villages 
there  are  little  shops  where  the  silk  is  spun  on  a  small  machine. 
The  cocoons  are  thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  water  mixed 
with  sour  milk.  A  man  turns  a  wheel,  about  a  yard  in  diam- 
eter, with  a  foot-treadle,  and  with  one  hand  stirs  the  cocoons 
to  loosen  the  fibers,  while  with  the  other  hand  he  draws  up 
the  threads  to  be  wound  around  the  wheel.  The  refuse  and 
loose  fibers  are  spun  by  the  women  and  made  into  head- 
dresses. In  the  mulberry  orchards,  where  the  leaves  are 
gathered  for  feeding  the  worms,  the  trees  are  kept  cut  so  that 
each  one  occupies  but  a  square  yard  of  ground.  The  seed- 
worms  complete  their  work  in  three  months,  and  are  kept  in 
the  house  during  the  winter.  The  weight  of  the  annual  silk- 
crop  of  Persia,  which  is  derived  chiefly  from  the  Caspian  prov- 
inces, is  six  hundred  thousand  pounds,  of  which  thirty-two 
thousand  pounds  come  from  Azerbijan. 

The  farmers  of  Karadagh  were  wont  to  be  cursed  with  land- 
lords. The  villages  were  owned  by  the  khans,  who  consulted 
only  their  own  interests,  not  the  good  of  the  tenants.  They 
went  the  round  of  the  villages  and  levied  on  the  people,  eat- 
ing their  fatlings  and  depleting  their  hen-roosts.  Not  shahis, 
but  revilings,  were  the  reward  of  the  peasants.  Worse  than 
the  masters  were  the  agents  who  collected  the  rents  and  taxes. 
The  names  of  the  householders  w^ere  sometimes  written  on 
wooden  tickets,  and  one  of  these  was  drawn  out  each  day  to 
indicate  who  should  provide  for  the  agent.  These  agents 
were  cruel  and  dishonest.  They  extorted  without  mercy  or 
chance  of  appeal.  The  regular  dues  were  three  parts  out  of 
ten  of  the  crops  and  flocks,  but  more  than  a  half  was  required 
to  satisfy  the  owner  and  his  men.  The  result  of  these  exac- 
tions, with  the  insecure  tenure,  was  that  many  people  were 
driven  away.  They  had  no  sense  of  security,  such  as  would 
encourage  them  to  build  good  houses  or  orchards.     They  fled 


MOUNTAIN  ARMENIANS  AND   NOMADS  131 

from  one  village  to  another.  Some  went  to  Tabriz  and  others 
to  Russia.  Finally  they  made  an  appeal  to  the  shah,  through 
the  mediation  of  Bishop  Stephanos.  The  shah  was  gracious, 
and  transferred  the  farming  of  the  taxes  to  the  bishop,  who 
appointed  the  priests  to  collect  and  forward  the  revenues. 
Some  villages  were  purchased  by  Armenian  merchants.  As  a 
result  the  Armenians  were  relieved  from  their  oppressions. 

The  Armenians  of  Karadagh  are  not  lacking  in  the  exter- 
nals, at  least,  of  religion.  They  have  churches,  shrines,  and 
priests  in  abundance.  Every  village,  however  insignificant, 
has  its  rough  stone  church,  sometimes  not  more  than  ten  feet 
square.  On  some  of  the  churches  are  bells,  which  have  been 
introduced  of  late  years  from  Russia.  There  lives  in  the 
region  a  Jerusalem  pilgrim,  who,  with  a  great  reputation  for 
sanctity,  peregrinates  among  the  people,  dervish-like,  tells  their 
fortunes,  and  eats  their  substance.  He  is  bhnd  and  beggarly, 
very  ignorant,  and  apparently  half-witted,  which  probably 
adds  to  the  reverence  given  him,  as  insanity  is  frequently  con- 
founded with  inspiration.  He  came  one  day  and  interrupted 
our  meeting.  After  setting  forth  his  own  perfections,  the 
many  languages  he  had  mastered — each  in  a  single  night,  with 
a  vast  literature  in  each — the  wide  extent  of  his  travels,  and 
an  immense  amount  of  gibberish,  he  ended  with  a  vile  and 
violent  attack  on  Protestantism. 

At  one  place  we  saw  a  good  sample  of  a  village  fight.  We 
had  lain  down  to  sleep  in  the  common  apartment,  when  sud- 
denly there  was  a  rushing  to  and  fro  of  troops  of  infuriated 
men  and  women,  who  made  a  bedlam  of  the  village,  and  with 
shoutings,  curses,  blackguarding,  and  general  scurrility  ex- 
hausted the  Armenian  vocabulary  in  doing  to  others  as  others 
were  doing  to  them.  Mingled  with  the  barking  of  dogs,  the 
quarrel  made  the  night  hideous ;  nor  did  they  desist  until  they 
had  scarred  one  another's  beauty. 

A  rite  upon  which  great  stress  is  laid  by  the  Karadaghlis  is 


132  PERSI.4N  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

the  offering  of  sacrifices.  Almost  every  village  has  its  shrine 
and  altar.  These  are  usually  on  high  ground,  surrounded  by 
groves  of  tall  trees,  and  are  regarded  as  most  sacred.  Vari- 
ous causes  are  assigned  for  the  selection  of  these  places.  One 
acquired  its  sacred  association  because,  when  Christ  mounted 
on  an  ox  was  traversing  this  country,  the  ox  rested  on  the 
hill.  Another  is  the  place  where  the  ox  died.  Yet  another  is 
the  cave  of  a  hermit  of  olden  time.  Another  still  is  the  tomb 
of  two  monks,  John  and  James,  who  are  declared  by  the 
inscription,  in  ancient  Armenian,  to  have  wrought  miracles. 
The  place  of  the  tomb  was  disclosed  to  the  Jerusalem  pilgi-im 
in  a  dream,  and  a  church  has  since  been  built  over  it.  Other 
sites  acquired  their  sacredness  from  the  descent  of  heavenly 
lights,  supposed  to  be  divine  manifestations.  Another  cause 
is  the  beauty  of  the  groves,  and  the  size  and  age  of  some  of  the 
trees.  There  seems  to  be  something  natural  in  the  veneration 
given  to  large  trees.  To  these  groves  the  axe  is  never  laid. 
Some  time  ago  the  top  of  a  tree,  whose  trunk  at  the  base 
measured  forty  feet,  fell  to  the  ground.  It  has  lain  there  and 
rotted,  as  no  one  dares  to  use  the  sacred  wood.  To  warn  off 
any  Gideon,  they  tell  of  a  Mussulman  who,  thinking  there  was 
honey  in  one  of  the  trees,  cut  it  down  in  spite  of  the  protests 
of  the  Armenians.  The  tree  broke  in  five  pieces,  one  of  which 
killed  the  axeman.  Four  of  his  sons  died  within  a  short  time, 
and  the  fifth,  fearing  a  similar  fate,  brought  an  offering  for  his 
preservation.  The  man  should  have  known  better,  they  said, 
for  his  uncle  once  ridiculed  a  grove,  and  v.hen  he  looked 
around  his  neck  became  fixed  in  a  crooked  position.  Thus 
does  Baal  plead  for  himself !  I  once  ventured  to  .speak 
against  their  superstitious  belief  in  the  sacred  trees,  and  on 
the  following  night  my  horse  fell  into  a  well  in  the  stable. 
Afterward  this  was  cited  as  a  punishment  on  me  for  daring  to 
call  in  question  the  sacredness  of  the  shrines.  At  one  of  the 
shrines  food  is  placed  on  a  rock,  and  the  saints  are  supposed 


MOUNTAIN  ARMENIANS   AND  NOMADS  133 

to  come  and  consume  it.  A  young  evangelist,  seeing  that 
lizards  came  out  of  the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  shot  some  of 
them  in  order  to  uproot  the  superstition  of  the  people.  The 
women  meditated  an  attack  upon  him  for  destroying  their 
saints.  They  confidently  expected  some  definite  and  sudden 
calamity  to  come  upon  him,  and  were  surprised  to  see  him  go 
about  safe  and  sound  the  next  morning.  The  priest  chided 
him  for  spoihng  his  source  of  revenue. 

Upon  the  altars  at  the  high  places  sacrifices  of  sheep  and 
goats  are  made,  frequently  in  fulfilment  of  vows,  on  recovery 
from  sickness  or  deliverance  from  some  calamity,  or  with  a 
petition  for  some  desired  blessing.  After  the  sacrifice  has 
been  slain,  with  its  face  toward  the  east,  and  its  blood  has 
been  poured  upon  the  altar,  the  head,  feet,  and  hide  are  given 
to  the  priest,  and  the  remainder  is  taken  home  and  eaten. 
After  two  weeks'  abstinence  we  were  glad  to  eat  of  it,  without 
asking  any  questions.  None  of  the  sacrifice  is  burned,  but 
candles  are  kept  lighted  during  the  ceremony.  It  seems  to  be 
regarded  as  a  thank-offering,  though  some  attribute  expiatory 
eflficacy  to  it.  "  They  sacrifice  upon  the  tops  of  the  moun- 
tains, under  oaks  and  poplars  and  elms,  because  the  shadow 
thereof  is  good."     (Hos.  iv.  13.) 

We  had  several  interesting  experiences  with  the  Aylauts,  or 
nomads  of  Karadagh.  The  greater  part  of  its  Mussulman 
population  is  settled  in  towms  and  villages,  but  some  still  re- 
tain their  habits  as  wandering  tribes.  The  plain  of  Moghan, 
part  of  which  is  Russian  territory,  is  one  of  their  pasture- 
grounds.  The  grass  is  said  to  grow  so  high  as  to  cover  a  man 
on  horseback.  Moghan  has  been  the  camping-ground  of  many 
conquerors.  Here,  it  is  said,  venomous  serpents  arrested  the 
march  of  Pompey.  Here,  on  Noruz,  i  736,  Nadir  Shah  placed 
the  crown  on  his  head,  w'ith  a  great  pageant,  at  the  same  time 
demanding  that  his  subjects  should  renounce  the  Shiah  and 
adopt  the  Sunni  faith. 


134  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

Some  of  the  nomads  live  in  the  villages  during  the  winter. 
As  soon  as  spring  opens  they  leave  the  plains,  carrying  every- 
thing of  value  with  them,  and  their  houses  become  deserted 
and  dismantled,  not  even  a  watchman  remaining  on  the  site. 
Some  of  their  villages  have  cultivated  fields  around  them,  and 
a  few  men  remain  to  garner  the  crops.  A  few  plow  arable 
land  on  the  mountains,  sow  the  seed,  and  return  to  reap  in 
the  following  year.  They  are  in  a  feudal  state,  the  clans 
being  subject  to  the  khan  or  chief,  who  is  their  protector  from 
injury  and  their  leader  in  war.  Their  dependence  on  the  shah 
is  slight.  They  send  an  annual  revenue  to  the  government, 
and  furnish  their  quota  of  soldiers  in  time  of  war.  This  semi- 
independence  enables  them  to  oppress  all  within  their  reach. 
Not  infrequently  we  passed  their  encampments.  Their  black 
or  brown  tents,  of  homespun  Avoolen  cloth,  were  grouped  on 
the  hillsides.  Sometimes  they  were  surrounded  with  reed 
curtains.  Their  wealth  consists  of  their  flocks  and  herds, 
which,  with  their  products,  are  exchanged  in  the  towns  for 
their  necessaries.  They  are  not  particular  how  they  add  to 
their  flocks.  The  villagers  around  Muzhumbar  had  been 
complaining  of  their  cattle  having  been  stolen.  We  saw  the 
thieves  driving  away  the  cattle  on  the  hilltops  above  us. 
Knowing  the  bad  reputation  of  these  nomads,  we  always 
passed  their  tents  with  some  solicitude.  One  day,  after  es- 
caping from  the  fierce  dogs,  we  were  breathing  more  freely, 
when  three  horsemen  in  a  gully  shouted  at  us  to  halt,  as  the 
khan  wished  to  see  us.  We  moved  on  slowly,  with  some 
trepidation,  while  one  of  them  galloped  forward,  stopped  our 
load-horse,  and  disappeared.  After  a  few  minutes  of  suspense, 
in  which  the  muleteer  threw  down  the  lines  in  affright  and 
refused  to  go  on,  the  horsemen  returned,  followed  by  another 
and  another,  until  twenty  horsemen,  headed  by  the  khan,  and 
each  armed  with  two  Martini-Henry  rifles,  surrounded  us.  We 
expected  nothing  else  than  to  be  robbed  ;  but  after  convincing 


MOUNTAIN  ARMENIANS  AND  NOMADS  135 

himself  that  I  was  neither  a  consular  nor  a  government  agent, 
but  simply  a  "  man  of  the  Book,"  he  let  us  go  in  peace,  merely 
chiding  us  for  not  stopping  to  eat  bread  at  his  tent.  We  after- 
ward learned  that  they  had  just  been  on  the  war-path  against 
the  village  of  Dinovar ;  but  finding  its  inhabitants  armed  and 
headed,  by  a  colonel  from  Tabriz,  from  whose  tent  floated  the 
royal  ensign,  they  did  not  venture  to  attack  them. 

Another  day  we  lost  our  way,  and  wandered  over  the  rough 
mountains,  along  the  sheep-paths,  through  jungle-like  forests, 
amid  an  underbrush  of  low  thorns.  Finally  we  came  upon 
an  encampment  of  the  Aylauts.  Isaac  went  forward  to  recon- 
noiter.  He  was  in  a  sorry  phght,  with  hat  banged  in,  coat  in 
tatters,  hands  scratched  by  the  thorns,  and  eyes  red  with  pain. 
The  women,  with  wild,  disheveled  hair,  followed  by  troops  of 
almost  naked  children  and  by  savage  dogs,  surrounded  him, 
crying,  "  Vy,  vy!  "  and  offered  to  patch  him  up,  then  threat- 
ened to  pen  him  if  he  did  not  give  a  good  account  of  himself. 
But  they  refrained  from  molesting  him,  and  gave  us  a  guide, 
who  brought  us  quickly  to  our  destination.  On  another  occa- 
sion, one  of  the  khan's  relatives,  Ali  Beg,  seized  the  bridle  of 
Isaac's  mule  and  demanded  a  present  of  sugar.  We  declined 
on  account  of  the  smallness  of  our  supply.  He  answered  our 
refusal  with  the  full  weight  of  his  club  on  Isaac's  shoulder, 
and  brought  his  Martini-Henry  into  position  for  use.  The 
American  eagle  was  too  far  away,  and  he  got  the  sugar! 

Dr.  Mary  Bradford  and  Miss  G.  Y.  HoUiday,  while  on  a 
tour  in  Karadagh,  lodged  at  an  encampment  of  Aylauts. 
They  kept  a  sharp  oversight  of  their  goods,  and  fastened  their 
horses'  feet  with  chains  and  locks  at  night.  The  nomads 
refused  to  fix  a  price  for  anything,  and  seemed  insulted  that 
they  should  be  asked  to  sell  food ;  but  they  had  the  expecta- 
tion of  an  afiam  or  present  of  far  more  than  the  value.  In 
the  morning,  after  giving  liberal  presents,  the  ladies  started. 
When  out  of  camp  a  man  suddenly  appeared,  holding  a  bunch 


136  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

of  snakes  in  their  faces,  and  demanded  an  extra  aiiam.  The 
prompt  action  of  a  fellow-traveler,  bringing  his  gun  to  bear  on 
the  intruder,  relieved  them  from  their  predicament. 

A  Turk,  Alaskyar,  told  me  a  story  of  a  Shahsevan  girl  from 
near  Ardebil  who  had  known  him  when  a  child,  and  who 
afterward  married  one  of  the  chiefs.  She  became  a  robber  in 
male  attire,  and,  armed  with  sword,  dirk,  and  gun,  was  in  the 
habit  of  waylaying  travelers.  She  attacked  Alaskyar  when  he 
was  on  a  journey,  and  demanded  his  money.  Then  she  recog- 
nized him  and  asked  if  she  were  known,  it  being  the  custom  to 
kill  when  recognized.  He  failed  to  recognize  her.  She  then 
said,  "  You  are  Alaskyar.  I  am  the  girl  who  used  to  play 
with  you  ! "  Afterward  she  released  him  and  exhibited  her 
horsemanship.  Tying  a  bag  of  stones  around  her  waist,  she 
galloped  around,  throwing  them  down  and  picking  them  up, 
shooting  under  her  horse,  and  showing  all  the  manoeuvers  of 
the  Persian  horsemen. 

During  the  last  days  of  our  journey  we  had  to  pass  through 
the  camp  of  Rohim  Khan,  who,  with  several  thousands  of  his 
clan,  had  pitched  his  tents  on  the  bank  of  the  Keleibar  River. 
Probably  every  man,  woman,  and  child  among  them  is  a  thief. 
We  passed  unmolested  through  the  encampment,  but  just  as 
we  had  turned  out  of  sight  of  the  last  tents  a  horseman  gal- 
loped up  unobserved  from  behind  and  cried,  "  Halt  !  The 
khan  demands  your  presence."  We  remonstrated,  and  the 
fellow  said,  "You  must  either  knock  me  down  or  come."  To 
have  attacked  him  would  only  have  brought  up  his  comrades, 
so  we  parleyed,  trying  to  impress  him  with  our  rights  and  dig- 
nity as  foreigners,  but  with  small  effect.  He  demanded  that 
I  alight  from  my  horse,  and,  reinforced  by  some  shepherds,  he 
proceeded  to  put  his  demand  into  effect,  and  in  a  short  time 
had  me  on  the  ground.  I  held  on  to  the  bridle  until  one  of 
his  aids  drew  his  .sword,  when  he  assumed  undisputed  posses- 
sion.    Mounting,  he  galloped  off;  but  the  horse,  stiff  with  a 


MOUNTAIN  ARMENIANS  AND   NOMADS  137 

month  on  the  mountains,  did  not  go  to  suit  his  fancy,  so  he 
returned  it  soon,  and  we  managed  to  strike  a  bargain  with 
him,  and,  losers  by  some  krans,  were  allowed  to  proceed  on 
our  way.  We  immediately  went  to  the  governor  of  Karadagh, 
at  Ahar,  an  unpretentious  place  of  five  thousand  inhabitants, 
and  laid  information  before  him  as  to  these  affairs.  He  offered 
to  furnish  me  with  a  company  of  soldiers  to  return  and  chastise 
the  nomads,  but  I  declined.  He  then  promised  to  send  and 
have  the  parties  arrested  and  imprisoned  until  orders  should 
come  from  Tabriz  for  their  punishment.  The  governor  was  a 
prince,  but  in  dealing  with  these  chiefs  of  the  tribes  he  was 
comparatively  powerless.  His  court  was  full  of  petitioners 
appealing  from  their  oppressors.  The  executioner  who  served 
him,  with  his  companions,  had  been  waylaid  a  few  days  before, 
and  after  a  musketry  skirmish  had  been  stripped  of  all  his 
possessions.  The  roads  had  been  so  unsafe  that  the  revenue 
of  the  province  could  not  be  forwarded  to  the  treasury  ;  some 
of  it  had  been  sent  concealed  in  a  charcoal  caravan.  One 
reason  for  the  insecurity  of  the  roads  was  that  the  governor 
of  Azerbijan  had  compounded  with  the  thieves  and  let  them 
go  free  on  their  giving  him  part  of  the  stolen  goods.  They 
immediately  returned  to  plunder  other  victims.  The  governor 
of  Karadagh  was  very  friendly  disposed.  He  had  on  his  table 
a  former  edition  of  the  Persian  New  Testament,  which  he  had 
read  with  great  interest.  He  was  glad  to  receive  the  new 
edition.  He  honored  us  with  a  present  of  fowls  and  some 
sweets,  and,  owing  to  the  dangerous  state  of  the  roads,  gave 
us  a  guard  to  conduct  us  to  Tabriz. 

Shortly  after  this  time  the  chiefs  of  the  tribes  drove  out  the 
governor,  and  the  crown  prince  led  an  army  against  them  and 
punished  them  and  their  chiefs,  shooting  some  from  the  can- 
non's mouth,  imprisoning  and  fining  others.  Since  then  Kara- 
dagh has  been  more  quiet  and  safe. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

TEHERAN,  THE    CAPITAL   OF   PERSIA 

A  JOURNEY  of  four  hundred  miles  by  railway  requires 
but  the  time  of  a  fleeting  dream.  When,  however,  the 
same  distance  has  to  be  traversed  in  the  primitive  method  of 
Oriental  travel,  and  amid^Oriental  scenes,  it  becomes  impor- 
tant. Hours  in  one  case  become  days  in  the  other,  and  an 
ill-remembered  sensation  of  swift  motion  is  replaced  by  the 
experiences  of  two  weeks'  travel  by  caravan.  It  is  true  there 
is  a  speedier  mode  of  travel  even  in  Persia.  Between  some  of 
the  chief  cities  there  are,  in  connection  with  the  post,  fresh 
relays  of  horses  at  frequent  stations,  and  speeding  at  a  gallop 
by  night  and  day  satisfies  the  foreigner's  rushing  impulse. 

For  our  journey  to  Teheran  we  took  the  slower  train.  A 
large,  burly  Tm^k  accompanied  us,  whose  protruding  bones 
and  full  muscular  development  made  him  well  able  to  carry 
the  name  of  the  Imam  Ali  Askar.  His  black,  furry,  brimless 
hat  concealed  as  large  a  surface  of  shaven  head  as  any  of  his 
countrymen  could  boast  of.  His  numerous  waistcoats,  of 
various  bright-colored  prints,  each  with  a  full  frock,  were 
bound  with  a  leathern  girdle.  His  coat  of  white  felt,  gathered 
in  folds  at  the  waist,  extended  out  over  the  load  as  he  was 
mounted  upon  it,  and  his  slipper-like  shoes,  without  heel-backs 
or  fastenings,  dangled  in  the  air  to  the  motion  of  the  mule. 
A  favorite  amusement  of  the  mule  was  "  making  Mussulman 
prayers,"  the  stumbling  and  rapid  rising  of  the  animal  suggest- 
ing the  prostrations  of  the  devotee  of  Islam.     A  favorite,  and 

138 


TEHERAN,  THE  CAPITAL   OF  PERSIA  139 

at  each  successive  time  more  ridiculous,  position  of  the  patient 
AH  Askar  was  sprawling  on  the  ground. 

The  charvadar  or  muleteer  had  a  coat  of  sheepskin,  with 
the  wool  turned  inside.  His  stockings  were  strips  of  coffee- 
sacking  wound  about  the  feet ;  the  legs  of  the  boots  were 
open  at  the  side,  and  bound  tightly  with  strings  of  leather. 
He  sometimes  put  on  his  boots  before  his  night's  rest,  so  as 
to  be  ready  to  start  early.  He  slept  in  his  clothes,  except  the 
mammoth  hat  of  sheepskin,  which  served  as  a  pillow.  His 
place  of  rest  was  an  elevated  platform  in  the  stables,  without 
bedding.  If  the  stables  were  full  he  tied  the  animals  to  a 
rope  fastened  to  pegs  in  the  yard,  put  the  feed-bags  over  their 
heads,  and  slept  beside  them. 

On  leaving  Tabriz  the  road  to  Teheran  ascends  quickly  to 
a  higher  level,  and  as  we  passed  the  summer  residences  of  the 
sadr-azam  and  the  khallat-pashan,  and  the  villa  of  the  Russian 
consul,  we  could  feel  the  air  growing  cooler.  Morning  re- 
vealed the  earth  covered  with  snow  (September  14th),  and 
gave  us  a  cold  ride  over  Shiblee  Pass.  Just  beyond  the  pass 
we  came  upon  a  pretty  sheet  of  water.  It  bears  the  paradox- 
ical name  of  Kuri  Gyol,  or  "  Dry  Lake,"  because  of  its  small- 
ness  in  summer.  On  the  left  side  of  it  a  road  branches  off  to 
Ardebil  and  the  Caspian  coast. 

The  character  of  the  day  heightened  the  effect  of  the 
wretchedness  by  the  roadside.  The  mud-hut  where  v/e 
lunched  was  certainly  the  humblest  house  of  entertainment  in 
which  we  ever  ate.  It  was  a  low  room  ten  feet  square,  with 
a  manger  in  one  corner,  a  refuse-heap  in  the  other,  a  tandur 
or  underground  oven  in  the  middle.  A  wild  man  appeared 
in  the  road,  half  naked,  slinging  a  club  in  the  air,  and  with 
singing  and  shouting  running  after  it.  He  was  powerful  and 
well  capable  of  handling  his  club.  When  we  reached  him  he 
pleasantly  demanded  a  kran.  Every  passer-by  gives  to  him, 
as  he  is  reputed  to  stone  every  one  who  refuses.      He  goes 


140  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

into  the  villages,  and,  throwing  up  large  stones,  lets  them  fall 
on  his  breast.  For  this  display  of  prowess  he  gets  the  shahis 
of  the  people. 

But  most  wretched  of  all  was  the  condition  and  appearance 
of  the  numerous  lepers,  who  sat  by  the  wayside  begging,  and 
crying  out  piteously,  with  scarcely  intelligible  voices,  "  Ya  Ya- 
radan  Allah!"  ("O  Creator  God!").  Repeated  again  and 
again,  this  refrain  of  the  lepers  is  most  touching.  Clad  in 
rags  and  sitting  upon  the  ground,  their  shelter  a  circle  of 
stones  piled  up  without  a  roof,  or  a  dugout,  or  perchance  a 
natural  cave,  they  presented  a  revolting  spectacle.  They  were 
victims  of  the  terrible  elephantiasis — called  Jiizam^  from  an 
Arabic  root  meaning  amputation  or  mutilation — incurable, 
deadly,  loathsome.  A  picture  of  living  death,  they  eke  out  a 
miserable  existence.  Many  frequent  the  roads  in  Persia,  on 
the  outskirts  of  cities  or  villages.  They  are  regulated  by  few 
laws,  the  one  of  separation  from  the  rest  of  mankind  not  being 
rigidly  enforced.  We  passed  a  score  and  a  half  of  these  mis- 
erable creatures.  Inhere  is  a  village  of  them  about  six  miles 
from  Tabriz.  They  cultivate  their  farms,  and  in  some  cases  are 
well-to-do  and  prosperous,  providing  for  themselves  some,  at 
least,  of  the  comforts  of  life.  Their  hamlet  is  called  Payon,  or 
the  "  Village  of  the  Sick,"  and  there  are  about  five  hundred  of 
them,  little,  if  at  all,  segregated.  To  this  village  the  roadside 
beggars  belong,  and  there  they  take  their  alms  and  buy  food ; 
and  whenever  anything  is  needed  from  the  city,  some  of  those 
on  whom  marks  of  the  leprosy  are  not  evident  pass  the  money 
to  the  unwitting  shopkeepers. 

The  origin  of  the  community  is  interesting.  About  forty 
years  ago  Aziz  Khan  Sardar  was  governor  of  Tabriz.  Some 
of  the  leading  men  called  his  attention  to  the  promiscuous 
way  in  which  lepers  were  allowed  to  mingle  with  the  people. 
To  check  this  he  ordered  them  to  be  collected  from  all  Azer- 
bijan,  assigned  them  a  section  of  land,  furnished  them  with 


TEHERAN,  THE  CAPITAL   OF  PERSIA  141 

oxen  and  farming  implements,  and  established  them  as  a  sep- 
arate community.  At  first  they  were  given  charity,  month  by 
month,  from  the  public  treasury.  If  it  was  delayed  beyond 
the  regular  time  they  came  trooping  down  to  the  city.  Now, 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  said  that  they  pay  taxes  to  the  govern- 
ment. During  the  famine  they  invaded  the  city  at  night  with 
demands  for  bread.  Some  of  the  missionaries  have  visited 
them. 

As  the  days  passed  on  we  observed  who  with  us  made  up  the 
caravan.  We  were  scarcely  one  caravan,  as  those  who  traveled 
with  us  started,  according  to  custom,  on  their  day's  journey 
about  midnight,  or  during  the  third  watch,  reaching  their  desti- 
nation shortly  after  we  of  Occidental  habits  had  started.  We 
found  our  companions  to  be  chiefly  pilgrims  for  Meshed.  One 
section  were  taking  the  bodies  of  their  dead,  perhaps  exhumed 
after  months  of  repose,  to  deposit  them  in  the  ground  conse- 
crated by  the  dust  of  the  Imam  Reza.  What  a  long  and  dreary 
funeral-march !  Many  of  the  pilgrims  were  women,  with  chil- 
dren of  all  ages,  starting  out  with  alacrity  on  their  thousand- 
mile  pilgrimage.  Some  were  mounted  on  horseback  after  the 
manner  of  men.  Others  were  packed  away  in  cajavahs — 
wicker  baskets  or  boxes,  fastened  together  and  slung  over  the 
horse,  and  then  filled  with  women,  babies,  baggage,  or  stones 
to  balance.  More,  however,  preferred  the  iakhtarevan,  which 
may  be  briefly  described  as  a  large  box,  with  windows  or  slid- 
ing doors  in  the  sides,  placed  on  two  long  poles  serving  as 
shafts,  in  which  the  mules  are  hitched,  one  before  and  the 
other  behind  the  takhtarevaii.  We  did  not  envy  them  their 
stylish  mode  of  travel,  for  we  had  tried  it.  It  is  very  slow, 
tedious,  and  expensive.  A  man  trudges  alongside  to  steady 
and  guard  the  vehicle.  Once,  in  crossing  a  stream,  the  fellow 
abandoned  his  post  to  go  over  a  foot-bridge.  The  hind  horse 
stopped  to  drink,  the  takhf  turned,  and  the  lady  was  in  a 
perilous  position.     Ali  Askar  waded  to  the  rescue,  and  carried 


142  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

her  to  dry  ground.  Then  his  wrath  vented  itself  on  the  de- 
h'nquent  charvadar  with  harmless  blows  with  the  broadside  of 
his  sword.  He  quickly  stirred  him  up  to  extricate  the  takht 
from  the  water. 

The  fourth  day  brought  us  to  Turkomanchai,  a  village  pic- 
turesquely situated  between  high  hills.  It  looked  neat  at  a 
distance,  but  on  near  approach  was  as  filthy  as  other  villages. 
It  is  known  only  as  the  place  where  the  treaty  was  signed  be- 
tween Persia  and  Russia  after  the  invasion  of  1828-30.  The 
treaty  gave  the  Russians  the  provinces  of  Erivan  and  Nakhe- 
jevan  to  the  Aras  River.  Its  bed  is  broad  and  deep,  though 
in  summer  almost  dry.  It  had  been  swollen  by  the  recent 
rains,  yet  we  preferred  to  go  mainly  by  the  river-bed.  '\\'e 
crossed  the  stream  nine  times  in  its  winding  course,  and 
reached  the  city  of  Miana,  welcoming  Sunday.  There  is  little 
difficulty  in  getting  a  caravan  to  stop  over  Sunday.  The 
principle  in  the  law  of  rest  is  so  clearly  recognized  by  the 
charvadars  as  a  necessity  for  their  animals  that  it  is  their  habit 
to  rest  one  or  two  days  in  a  week. 

Miana  is  a  district  capital  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  situ- 
ated near  the  junction  of  three  considerable  streams,  which, 
with  their  numerous  tributaries,  are  lined  thickly  with  villages. 
Miana,  Zenjan,  and  Kasvin  are  the  relay  stations  of  the  Indo- 
European  telegraph-line  between  Tabriz  and  Teheran,  in 
charge  of  German  operators.  They  are  also  the  post-offices 
and  main  caravan  stations  on  the  king's  highway.  Miana 
fairly  represents  one  of  the  old  towns  of  Persia,  with  small 
yards,  separated  from  one  another  and  from  the  crooked  streets 
by  high  walls ;  houses  mostly  one  story  high,  built  of  adobe, 
having  pretentious  windows  covered  with  oil-paper,  the  roofs 
piled  up  with  manure  fuel ;  and  with  the  threshing-floors  at 
the  entrance  of  the  main  streets — overgrown  villages. 

The  Miana  mosque,  in  the  midst  of  hovels,  speaks  of  the 
strength  of  Islam.     It  has  a  large  green  glazed-tile  dome  and 


TEHERAN,  THE  CAPITAL   OF  PERSIA  143 

a  tall  minaret,  and  is  a  shrine  hallowed  by  the  dust  of  an  imam- 
zada.  When  a  caravan  comes  within  sight  of  the  sacred  dome 
it  stops,  and  each  one  places  a  stone  of  witness,  so  that  a  pile 
has  accumulated.  This  mosque  is  famed  for  giving  sight  to 
the  blind.  Its  efficacy  is  probably  the  same  as  that  of  a 
mosque  in  Tabriz,  where  a  miraculous  cure  was  said  to  have 
taken  place.  The  news  of  the  event  was  heralded  through  the 
city,  and  for  three  nights  the  roofs  were  aglow  with  bonfires, 
and  for  three  days  there  was  rejoicing,  because  God  had  visited 
his  people.  It  turned  out  that  the  man  had  merely  fixed  his 
eyes  blind,  and  had  them  conveniently  relieved  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  mosque. 

To  this  place  also  the  prediction  of  the  approaching  end  of 
the  world  had  reached,  then  so  much  talked  about  by  news- 
papers. The  molla  announced  that  Miana  would  be  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  at  the  end  of  Ramadan.  The  people  of 
the  Shahi  peninsula  thought  it  would  be  by  a  flood,  because 
the  rising  of  Lake  Urumia  sometimes  leaves  them  on  an  island 
for  six  months  ;  while  the  molla  had  in  remembrance  the  earth- 
quake which  a  few  years  before  had  shaken  the  whole  neigh- 
borhood and  totally  engulfed  some  villages. 

But  more  than  for  mosque  or  for  earthquakes  Miana  is 
famed  for  its  bug,  called  gafia.  Little  is  known  of  the  nature 
of  this  bug,  and  some  travelers  have  not  hesitated  to  call  it 
a  humbug.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  of  its  reality,  for  it 
abounds  in  the  district.  Its  bite  is  poisonous,  producing  large 
hives,  and  bringing  on  a  fever  which  is  sometimes  fatal.  The 
gafia  does  not  bite  the  inhabitants,  but  only  strangers.  For- 
tunately we  had  comfortable  quarters  in  the  station  of  the  Indo- 
European  Telegraph  Company. 

Soon  after  leaving  Miana  we  ascended  the  Pass  of  Koflan 
Kuh.  It  is  the  highest  point  between  Tabriz  and  Teheran, 
marking  the  boundary  between  Irak  and  Azcrbijan.  The 
pass  is  not  a  difficult  one,  only  a  long  winding  stretch  of  steep 


144  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

hill.  The  road  is  good,  one  side  being  paved  for  military 
purposes.  This  was  done  first  by  the  Turks,  and  was  repaired 
by  the  Russians  in  1830,  and  since  by  the  shah  from  time  to 
time.  Descending,  we  crossed  the  Guzul  Uzun  or  Sefid  Rud 
River,  one  of  the  longest  rivers  in  Persia.  It  is  four  hundred 
and  ninety  miles  from  its  rise  in  Mount  Zagros  to  its  empty- 
ing into  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  bridge  over  it  at  this  point  is 
said  to  be  eight  hundred  years  old,  and  is  well  preserved.  An 
interesting  romance  is  connected  with  it.  A  maid  of  Shiraz, 
left  an  heiress  by  the  death  of  her  father,  refused  all  offers  of 
marriage  and  devoted  herself  to  ministering  to  the  needs  of 
mankind.  Finally  she  came  to  these  solitary  mountains  and 
built  a  castle,  the  ruins  of  which  still  frown  down  upon  us,  and 
there  lived  while  she  superintended  and  built  from  her  own 
means  this  bridge.  It  is  considered  rehgiously  meritorious  to 
do  such  benefactions.  Another  woman  built  one  near  Tehe- 
ran, and  as  she  deemed  it  criminal  neglect  in  the  king  not  to 
have  erected  one  before,  she  invoked  a  ciu"se  upon  him,  and 
wrote  this  inscription  on  the  bridge :  "  Let  no  king  pass  over 
here  forever!"  It  is  said,  the  shah,  coming  to  the  bridge, 
turned  aside  and  went  through  the  stream.  That  shahs  have 
not  neglected  their  duty  since  then  appears  from  several  fine 
bridges  now  spanning  the  stream  on  this  road. 

The  region  of  country  we  were  traversing  is  a  high  plateau. 
The  character  of  the  landscape  is  very  monotonous — undulat- 
ing hills  succeeding  one  another  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
without  a  sign  of  a  forest,  or  even  a  tree  of  natural  growth. 
Lifelessness  is  the  chief  characteristic.  The  bleak,  barren 
hills  are  dead  beyond  imagination.  No  tree,  no  shrub  is  there 
— only  the  stunted  thorn-bush  struggling  for  existence.  One 
species  of  bush  is  seen,  here  and  there,  which  remains  green 
in  the  desert ;  and  since  there  is  no  water  visible,  the  natives 
think  it  must  have  a  spirit  or  life  in  itself.  These  bushes  are 
often  covered  with  rags,  offerings  to  this  spirit.     Lizards,  both 


TEHERAN,  THE  CAPITAL   OF  PERSIA  145 

numerous  and  active,  continually  dart  before  the  eye.  There 
are  literally  millions  of  them.  They  are  divided  into  believers 
and  infidels.  The  latter  it  is  lawful  to  kill.  In  some  desolate 
regions  the  telegraph-poles  appear  as  the  only  signs  of  the 
great  world's  civilization.  They  afford  a  strange  but  real  com- 
panionship in  the  long  weary  hours  of  travel.  The  columns 
of  dust  interest  us.  Beginning  afar  off,  the  column  gradually 
takes  shape  and  rises,  moving  along  regularly  before  the  wind, 
until  it  stands  as  high  as  the  eye  can  reach,  and  apparently 
not  more  than  two  feet  in  diameter.  The  entire  absence  of 
farm-houses  from  the  open  country — all  being  collected  into 
villages — gives  additional  weariness  to  the  long  distances,  with- 
out the  sight  or  sign  of  a  habitation.  When  a  village  does  ap- 
pear it  looks  so  much  like  the  dry  hills  around  it  as  to  be  scarcely 
distinguishable. 

On  the  third  day  from  Miana  the  landscape  along  the  Zen- 
jan  River  presented  a  pleasing  contrast.  It  is  well  watered, 
with  many  groves  and  grassy  plots.  On  the  flats  were  the 
tents  of  the  farmers,  camped  near  their  work,  and  around 
them  their  fields  of  rice,  castor-beans,  cotton,  and  grain.  After 
such  a  day  we  arrived  at  Zenjan,  the  capital  of  Khamseh,  a 
small  province.  The  caravansary  at  which  we  stopped  was  a 
good  sample  of  such  in  Persia.  Though  having  accommoda- 
tion for  a  thousand  horse,  there  was  nothing  for  travelers  but 
a  few  bare  rooms.  We  remained  a  day,  and  found  the  city 
an  active,  busy  place.  Its  bazaars  were  full  of  goods,  and  full 
of  life  as  well.  Zenjan  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  in  brass. 
The  sound  of  the  furnace  did  not  cease  at  night,  and  in  the 
morning  we  awakened  amid  the  din  of  a  hundred  anvils.  The 
display  of  fancy  leather-work  was  attractive,  but  that  which 
gives  Zenjan  its  European  reputation  is  its  beautiful  filigree- 
silver  work.  There  is  here  a  fine-looking  mosque  with  blue 
glazed-tile  dome,  and  several  graves  of  imam-zadas. 

Of  its  twenty  thousand  inhabitants  all  except  a  dozen  fam- 


146  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

ilies  of  Jews  and  Armenians  are  Mohammedans  of  various 
sects.  Many  of  the  Babis,  the  sect  which  has  proved  so 
troublesome  to  the  present  shah,  are  domiciled  here,  the 
scene  of  their  strong  resistance  to  the  government.  The  chief 
moUa  and  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  had  become  adherents. 
When  the  government  undertook  their  suppression  they  made 
a  determined  resistance.  The  fervor  of  the  leader  inspired  the 
followers  ;  they  resisted  with  fury  and  enthusiasm  the  forces  of 
the  shah  for  eight  months,  giving  no  quarter  and  asking  none. 
The  women,  with  an  energy  equal  to  the  men,  joined  in  the 
defense  of  the  barracks.  When,  reduced  by  hunger,  they 
were  given  opportunity  to  renounce  their  prophet,  the  Bab, 
they  resolutely  refused,  and  died  with  the  courage  of  martyrs. 

A  day's  ride  from  Zenjan  brought  us  to  Sultanieh.  Just 
before  entering  it  we  passed  a  summer  palace  and  fort  of  the 
shah.  When  Sir  John  Malcolm  came  to  Persia  as  ambassa- 
dor from  England  he  found  Fath  AH  Shah  encamped  here, 
with  a  retinue  of  forty  thousand  soldiers  and  attendants. 
Then  he  exhibited  for  the  first  time  in  Persia  an  electric  bat- 
tery and  a  magic  lantern,  and  also  introduced  carriages.  At 
that  time  the  shah  confeired  on  him  the  Order  of  the  Sun,  but 
he  refused  to  receive  it  on  the  ground  that  it  had  just  been 
created  for  Napoleon's  ambassador,  General  Gardane.  For 
this  reason  the  shah  created  the  Order  of  the  Lion  and  the 
Sun,  and  conferred  it  first  on  the  English  ambassador.  These 
orders  are  an  imitation  of  European  custom. 

The  camp  of  Fath  Ali  Shah  formed  a  regular  city  of  tents, 
with  bazaars,  etc.  Soon  the  soldiers  would  grow  discontented 
with  inactivity  and  wish  to  fight ;  and  Russia  being  the  nearest 
enemy,  it  was  almost  certain  the  quarrel  would  be  with  her. 
So  by  treaty  Fath  Ali  Shah  was  prohibited  from  assembling 
such  a  large  body  of  troops  here.  The  present  shah  repaired 
the  palace,  but  rarely  occupies  it. 

Little  remains  to  attest  the  former  greatness  of  Sultanieh. 


TEHERAN,  THE   CAPITAL    OF  PERSIA  147 

Who  would  think  that  the  miserable  village  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  houses  had  once  been  the  capital  of  Persia,  and 
gloried  in  the  riches  and  retinues,  and  had  been  adorned 
by  the  munificence,  of  several  lines  of  shahs  ?  Many  earth- 
mounds  and  the  yet  discernible  traces  of  walls  might  lead  us 
to  suspect  it  had  a  history.  But,  fortunately,  it  is  not  left 
without  a  witness.  Several  monuments  still  attest  its  tormer 
greatness.  One  of  these  is  the  ruin  of  a  moscpe,  beautiful 
even  in  its  dismantled  condition.  It  is  a  large  structure,  the 
dome  itself  being  one  hundred  feet  in  diameter  and  one  hun- 
dred and  tweh'e  feet  high.  The  walls  are  nine  feet  thick. 
The  interior  and  exterior  are  covered  with  glazed  tiles,  the 
dome  being  one  continuous  surface  of  blue  tiles,  resplendent 
from  afar.  The  pillars  are  of  variegated  colors,  worked  in 
patterns.  The  interior  workmanship  is  to  a  considerable 
extent  a  mosaic  of  gilded  tiles.  A  frieze  of  alabaster,  which 
formerly  completely  surrounded  the  interior,  and  on  which 
was  engraven  the  whole  of  the  Koran,  together  with  much 
other  fine  workmanship,  has  been  removed  to  Teheran.  We 
secured  several  tiles  which  had  fallen.  The  mosque  was  built 
by  Mohammed  Khuda  Banda,  the  first  Shiah  of  the  INIongol 
shahs  of  Irak,  whose  dust  it  contains  and  whose  fame  it  per- 
petuates. 

The  next  station,  Horam  Dara,  is  a  beautiful  shaded  spot. 
Some  stone  formations  in  the  mountain  near  by  have  an  inter- 
esting legend  connected  with  them.  They  appear  as  if  a 
shepherd,  leaning  on  his  staff  and  surrounded  by  his  flock, 
had  become  petrified  in  living  position.  This  has  given  rise 
to  the  story  that  Ali,  in  his  wanderings,  had  arrived  here 
weary,  and  being  rebuffed  on  requesting  a  cup  of  milk  from 
the  shepherd,  pronounced  a  curse  upon  him,  and  instantly  he 
and  his  flock  were  turned  into  stone. 

Two  days  more  of  travel  brought  us  to  Kasvin.  With 
Tabriz  it  has  the  honor  of  being  singled  out  for  mention  in 


148  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

"  Paradise  Lost,"  as  indicating  the  distant  Orient  in  the  days 
of  Milton.  It  is  the  center  of  a  transit  trade,  having  the  most 
accessible  road  to  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  has  also  a  place  in 
history  as  the  capital  of  the  Safavi  shahs,  the  birthplace  of 
Lokman,  the  fabulist,  the  scene  of  memorable  battles,  and  the 
terminus  of  Heraclius's  Third  Expedition.  One  of  the  relics 
of  former  days  is  a  system  of  reservoirs,  in  which  a  supply  of 
water  is  reserved  for  the  dry  season.  The  water  is  stagnant 
for  months,  and  yet  is  the  constant  drink  of  the  people,  and 
in  consequence  readily  breeds  disease.  Here  ague  attacked 
us,  and,  as  it  continued  for  three  months,  the  pleasure  and 
profit  of  the  journey  were  greatly  lost. 

An  agreeable  surprise  at  Kasvin  was  to  find  a  hotel,  far 
better  than  any  we  had  previously  met  with  in  Persia.  In- 
stead of  empty  rooms,  with  scarcely  a  strip  of  carpet,  it  was 
well  furnished,  and  meals  were  served  in  European  style.  It 
even  excelled  in  providing  not  only  combs,  but  also  tooth- 
brushes and  nightcaps  for  public  use!  The  building,  substan- 
tially built  of  brick,  and  standing  at  the  head  of  a  broad 
avenue,  is  an  ornament  to  the  city.  It  is  also  the  depot  for 
the  carriage  post-road,  which  has  lately  been  completed  from 
Teheran.  Our  admiration  for  the  roadway  was  great.  It  is 
straight  and  solid,  full  thirty  feet  wide,  and  extends  along  a 
level  plain.  At  every  four  miles  are  post-houses,  some  of 
them  for  guards,  others  for  the  accommodation  of  travelers. 
At  every  fourth  house  the  horses  are  exchanged  for  fresh 
relays.  Even  with  break-downs  and  smash-ups  the  rate  of 
travel  is  rapid.  During  our  last  day's  journey  our  course  lay 
along  a  canal.  It  is  a  stream  of  pure  mountain  water,  turned 
from  its  course  toward  the  capital.  A  porous  soil  and  evapo- 
ration cause  the  loss  of  six  sevenths  of  it,  and  exposure  in 
the  course  of  twenty-four  miles  corrupts  its  purity.  Still  the 
accomplishment  of  such  a  work,  and  the  construction  of  the 
post-road,  are  to  the  credit  of  modern  Persia. 


TEHERAN,  THE  CAPITAL   OF  PERSIA  149 

After  gazing  for  hours  upon  the  outstretched  habitations 
and  the  lofty  mountains  in  the  background,  we  were  right 
glad,  as  we  neared  the  gates,  when  the  Rev.  Mr.  Potter  met 
and  welcomed  us  to  Teheran. 

Teheran,  the  capital  of  Persia,  is  called  the  "  city  of  the 
shadow  of  God,"  the  "  footstool  of  the  King  of  kings."  It 
can  boast  of  no  glorious  past.  Though  the  neighboring  plains 
contain  the  mounds  and  ruins  of  great  cities,  it  was  only  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  that  Teheran  emerged  from 
obscurity.  The  first  records  tell  of  it  as  a  village  of  under- 
ground huts,  affording  a  retreat  from  the  heat  of  summer  or 
from  the  ravages  of  plundering  hordes.  It  was  chosen  as  the 
capital  of  Aga  Mohammed  Khan,  the  founder  of  the  Kajar  or 
reigning  dynasty.  His  preference  for  it  was  doubtless  owing  to 
its  proximity  to  his  own  tribe  in  Mezanderan.  Now  Teheran 
has  assumed  the  position  of  the  political  center  of  Central  Asia. 
Here  the  legations  of  England,  France,  Russia,  Germany, 
Austria,  Holland,  Turkey,  and  the  United  States  represent 
their  respective  countries  and  carry  on  their  political  intrigues. 
In  a  century  its  population  has  increased  from  fifteen  thousand 
to  two  hundred  thousand.  Because  of  its  modern  growth  it 
has  partaken  more  largely  than  any  other  Persian  city  of  a 
European  element,  and  been  influenced  by  Western  ideas. 
The  old  style  is  seen  in  the  high  walls  and  deep  moat  which 
surround  the  city.  On  each  side  of  the  town  are  two  large, 
well-built,  and  handsome  gates.  The  pillared  fronts  are  of 
various-colored  bricks,  worked  in  mosaic,  with  picture  repre- 
sentations. The  old  part  of  the  city,  too,  is  as  truly  Persian 
as  possible,  filthy  and  miserably  built.  On  the  other  hand, 
broad  avenues,  well  paved  and  bordered  with  shade-trees,  new 
styles  of  houses,  embassy  grounds  laid  out  like  an  English 
park,  phaetons  and  carriages,  telegraph-poles  and  tramways, 
street  gas-lamps  and  the  electric  light,  restaurants,  drug-stores, 
photograph  galleries,  and  Framghi  stores  strongly  attest  that 


150  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

Western  life  has  invigorated  the  stereotyped  East.  The  ba- 
zaars, too,  while  presenting  the  same  general  characteristics  as 
in  other  cities,  have  wider  avenues,  and  enjoy  more  of  the 
much-needed  sunlight.  They  are  well  stocked  with  imports, 
and  those  which  deal  in  European  goods  attract  the  briskest 
trade. 

The  life-center  of  the  city  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  public 
square  or  medan.  This  covers  about  the  space  of  four  city 
squares,  is  stone-paved,  and  is  adorned  with  water-fountains. 
Here  the  electric  light  is  exhibited.  The  city's  main  illumina- 
tion is,  however,  by  gas,  which  was  formally  lighted  for  the 
first  time,  with  public  ceremonies,  the  night  after  we  arrived. 
The  medan  is  used  for  royal  exhibitions,  and  as  a  drill-place 
for  the  soldiery.  Partially  suiTounding  it  is  the  top-khana  or 
armory,  from  the  windows  of  which  the  field-pieces  stare  out. 
Back  of  the  medan  is  the  ark  or  citadel,  the  most  important 
building  in  the  city.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  strong  wall,  with 
towers  at  intervals,  and  contains,  besides  the  city  palace,  the 
hall  of  judgment,  the  treasury,  the  arsenal,  the  royal  college, 
and  the  theater.  These  buildings  are  good,  substantial  brick 
structures,  rarely  attaining  a  second  story,  yet  fantastically 
ornamented  in  Oriental  style.  We  made  repeated  efforts  to 
obtain  admission  to  the  "  Palace  of  the  Sun,"  to  see  the  crown 
paraphernalia  and  jewels,  of  which  the  diamond  called  the 
"  Sea  of  Light "  is  among  the  most  precious  in  the  world. 
Though  disappointed  in  this,  we  had  free  access  to  the  throne- 
room.  On  its  walls  are  paintings  of  the  shahs  of  the  Kajar 
dynasty,  while  the  ceiling  and  the  walls  are  ornamented 
with  arabesques,  profusely  inlaid  with  looking-glass,  whicli 
reflects  the  gorgeousness  of  him  who  "  sits  high  on  the  throne 
in  royal  state."  Two  doors  are  objects  of  great  interest. 
They  are  of  large  size,  covered  completely  with  Shiras  mosaic 
— an  inlaid  work  of  minute  particles  of  wood,  brass,  and  bone, 
of  different  colors,  which  is  highly  artistic.     The  throne  itself 


TEHERAN,  THE   CAPITAL   OF  PERSIA  151 

is  generally  considered  to  be  one  of  the  trophies  of  Nadir 
Shah  from  the  conquest  of  Delhi,  It  is  a  platform  of  white 
marble,  about  ten  by  fifteen  feet  in  area,  raised  on  carved 
figures  of  lions,  and  ascended  by  marble  steps.  It  is  inlaid 
and  ornamented  with  gold.  On  it  rugs  are  spread,  and  the 
shah  sits  after  the  manner  of  the  Persians.  Here,  on  his 
birthday,  he  holds  salaam  and  receives  the  congratulations  of 
the  people. 

We  were  gi-eatly  interested  in  the  royal  college,  where  we 
were  received  by  the  president  and  by  some  of  the  professors 
in  the  reception-room,  and  there  the  preliminaries  of  coffee- 
drinking  took  place  and  other  hospitalities  were  dispensed.  We 
were  conducted  through  the  institution  by  Mr.  John  Tyler,  pro- 
fessor of  English,  now  the  efficient  interpreter  of  the  United 
States  legation.  The  plan  of  the  building  is  a  hollow  square,  the 
rooms,  one  story  high,  all  facing  the  inner  court,  and  open- 
ing on  a  veranda  which  surrounds  the  court.  The  court  itself 
was  laid  out  with  shrubbery  and  flowers.  The  first  room  we 
entered  was  the  French  class-room,  where,  under  a  Persian 
teacher,  a  large  class  was  reciting  and  taking  good  hold  of  the 
language.  The  walls  of  the  room  were  covered  with  very  fair 
pencil-sketches  and  oil-paintings,  the  work  of  the  pupils.  In 
the  English  room  Professor  Tyler  showed  us  a  class  of  bright 
boys  translating  our  mother-tongue,  which  is  making  much  ad- 
vance in  Persia.  These,  with  Russian,  Arabic,  and  Turkish, 
are  the  foreign  languages  taught.  Had  we  come  in  the  morn- 
ing the  sciences  would  have  been  on  the  programme.  There 
was  some  scientific  apparatus  and  a  small  library  representing 
many  languages.  Thence  we  crossed  into  the  music-hall.  We 
found  pianos  and  organs,  and,  more  than  all,  were  entertained 
by  a  full  cornet  band,  composed  of  the  pupils.  The  music- 
hall  was  built  by  the  shah  for  the  royal  theater,  with  stage  and 
scenery ;  but  the  mollas  objected  to  plays  being  introduced, 
so  the  shah  refrained  from  executing  his  purpose.     We  were 


152  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

then  led  into  the  gymnasium,  where  the  attempt  of  the  youth- 
ful Persians  to  go  through  the  antics  of  the  trapeze-performer 
afforded  us  no  httle  amusement.  It  was  certainly  time  to 
refresh  ourselves,  according  to  Persian  custom  ;  so  we  repaired 
again  to  the  reception-room,  and  were  served  with  ice-cream 
and  tea,  after  which  we  looked  in  at  the  photograph  gallery, 
where  every  scholar  has  a  chance  to  learn  photography  in 
regular  curriculum. 

The  extent  of  the  curriculum,  the  drill,  and  the  evident  suc- 
cess of  the  instruction  in  the  shah's  college  were  a  great  surprise 
to  us.  The  number  in  attendance  was  two  hundred  and  fifty, 
composed  of  Persians  and  Armenians,  with  a  few  Hindus, 
All  the  native  races  and  religions  are  admitted.  Christians 
are  allowed  to  stay  away  on  Sunday  if  they  desire  to.  Tuition 
is  free.  Not  only  so,  but  all  are  in  some  degree  supported. 
Some  are  given  only  a  few  tomans,  while  others  have  full  sup- 
port, the  morning  and  evening  meals  being  provided  at  the 
college.  The  shah  furnishes  the  funds,  and  the  running- 
expenses  are  said  to  be  sixty  thousand  dollars  a  year.  His 
Majesty's  object  in  maintaining  the  college  is  to  prepare  edu- 
cated officers  for  the  army  and  the  civil  service. 

Leading  out  from  the  itiedan  radiate  the  broad  avenues  of 
the  city.  One  of  these,  hned  with  poplars,  extends  far  beyond 
the  city  limits.  It  is  the  popular  riding-course.  It  leads  to 
the  summer  palaces,  to  the  mint,  and  to  the  mountain  villas, 
where  the  hot  season  is  spent.  We  took  a  ride  along  this 
shaded  avenue.  Within  the  city  there  were  activity  and  bustle 
everywhere,  in  preparation  for  the  shah's  return  after  some 
months'  absence.  The  houses  and  walls  were  being  festooned 
and  decorated  with  flags  and  bunting,  arches  were  being 
erected,  the  gates — especially  that  through  which  the  shah  was 
to  enter — were  being  adorned.  The  work  was  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Austrian  prefect  of  police.  The  shah 
was  then  at  the  palace  called  Negaristan,  awaiting  the  com- 


TEHERAN,  THE  CAPITAL   OF  PERSIA  153 

pletion  of  the  preparations  to  receive  him.  Passing  by  this 
palace,  we  found  admittance  to  the  Takht-i-Kajar,  a  palace 
built  by  Mohammed  Shah  on  a  hillside.  The  building  is 
inferior,  but  the  garden  is  dense  with  foliage  and  sparkling 
with  large  fountains.  From  its  terrace  a  fine  view  is  obtained 
of  the  city  and  of  the  country  beyond,  as  far  as  the  royal 
menagerie,  the  cemetery  of  the  fire-worshipers,  and  the  golden 
domes  of  Shah  Abdul  Azim. 

As  we  returned  to  the  road  an  unusual  sight  greeted  our 
eyes,  namely,  the  puff,  puff  of  smoke  from  tall  chimneys.  May 
this  forerunner  of  steam  woolen  factories  in  Persia  have  numer- 
ous successors  !  The  mint,  too,  puffed  forth  as  honest  smoke 
as  if  the  coin  were  not  being  badly  debased  in  its  fires.  We 
were  permitted  to  examine  minutely  the  processes  of  the  mint. 
The  metal  was  handled  in  the  loosest  fashion,  the  coin  falling 
down  and  rattling  on  the  floor  at  our  feet.  The  work  is  now 
in  Persian  hands,  after  having  been  started  by  Europeans.  It 
is  on  so  limited  a  scale  that  the  whole  process  was  easily 
followed,  until  many  a  "  sun-rising-behind-a-hon "  appeared 
bright  and  new  before  us.  The  debasing  of  the  coin  has  de- 
preciated all  manufactures  of  silver  in  Persia.  The  transfer 
from  the  Caspian  to  Teheran  of  the  first  steam-engine  for  the 
mint  was  a  matter  of  great  ditficulty.  It  stuck  in  the  mud 
coming  over  the  mountains,  and  there  remained  for  a  consid- 
erable time.  The  first  one  brought  into  Azerbijan  was  drawn 
on  wheels  with  much  trouble.  Lack  of  fuel,  however,  pre- 
vented its  being  utilized  for  purposes  of  irrigation  in  Kurdistan, 
as  was  intended. 

On  another  occasion  a  party  of  us  went  to  Rhe,  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Phages.  In  its  day  it  flourished  contemporary 
with  Nineveh  and  Ecbatana,  and  was  a  prominent  city  under 
Grecian,  Parthian,  and  Arab  supremacies.  It  receives  men- 
tion in  the  Zend-Avesta,  and  in  Tobit  and  Judith,  and  was  an 
encampment  of  Alexander  in  his  pursuit  of  Darius,  and  the 


154  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

birthplace  of  Haroun-al-Raschid.  It  reached,  in  Mohamme- 
dan times,  a  population  of  a  million  and  a  half.  Now  it  has 
almost  disappeared.  Its  site,  about  six  miles  from  Teheran, 
is  for  the  most  part  cultivated  fields.  There  still  remains,  how- 
ever, a  village  named  Shah  Abdul  Azim,  in  memory  of  the 
saint  who  gave  it  its  chief  attraction.  This  is  the  mosque  built 
by  him  and  containing  his  tomb.  It  is  enriched  by  many  and 
costly  gifts,  and  burial  within  its  precincts  is  considered  a  priv- 
ilege. The  shrine  is  a  great  resort  for  the  devout.  Every 
Friday,  especially,  crowds  go  there  to  worship.  A  railroad 
has  since  been  built  to  it — the  first  one  erected  in  Persia.  We 
had  merely  time  to  gaze  at  its  gold-covered  dome,  while  we 
busied  ourselves  in  viewing  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city.  In 
the  midst  of  mounds  of  debris  several  strongly  built  towers 
yet  remain  in  different  places,  one  with  Cufic  inscriptions  of 
comparatively  late  date.  Over  a  ledge  runs  the  line  of  the 
old  wall.  Pieces  of  pottery,  old  coins,  and  ornaments  are 
occasionally  found. 

In  the  neighborhood  were  other  objects  of  interest.  Just 
on  the  rock  above  a  large  fountain  where  we  lunched  there  is 
a  carving  in  relief,  after  the  manner  of  those  made  in  ancient 
times.  This  was  made  by  Fath  Ali  Shah,  and  is  a  representa- 
tion of  himself  and  his  counselors.  Another  represents  him 
on  horseback  in  the  chase,  in  the  act  of  spearing  a  lion.  The 
present  shah  also  has  had  such  a  monument  made  for  himself, 
in  the  Elburz  Mountains,  on  the  road  to  Resht — a  sculpture  in 
relief  of  himself  and  his  viziers. 

The  last  sight  of  the  afternoon  was  the  cemetery  of  the 
Guebers  or  fire-worshipers.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the 
fire-worshipers  do  not  burn  or  bury  their  dead,  but  expose 
them  in  the  open  air  to  the  ravages  of  birds  and  the  influence 
of  the  atmosphere.  The  few  remaining  adherents  of  this  an- 
cient religion  continue  the  primitive  custom.  This  cemetery, 
far  up  on  the  hillside,  can  be  seen  from  a  great  distance,  be- 


TEHERAN,  THE   CAPITAL    OF  PERSIA  155 

cause  It  is  whitewashed.  Within  the  cemetery  is  a  tower  not 
more  than  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  circular  wall  about 
thirty  feet  high.  No  door  appears,  nor  is  there  any  way  of 
ascent.  A  ladder  is  used  at  the  time  of  the  deposit  and  ex- 
posure of  a  body,  and  then  removed.  By  going  farther  up 
the  hill  we  were  able  to  see  the  grates  upon  which  the  bodies 
are  laid,  and  through  which  the  crumbling  bones  fall.  We 
saw  no  sign  of  the  dead,  though,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
little  community  of  three  hundred  do  not  often  have  occasion 
to  form  processions  for  the  long  march  from  the  city  to  this 
"  tower  of  silence." 


CHAPTER    IX 

HAMADAN,    AND    TAKHT-I-SULEIMAN 

I  VISITED  Hamadan  and  Takht-i-Suleiman,  the  Median 
Ecbatanas,  in  1892.  I  traversed  the  same  road  as  in  going 
to  Teheran,  as  far  as  Zenjan.  Thence  to  Hamadan  the  way- 
is  remarkable  for  Httle  else  than  the  number  of  shrines  on  it. 
It  is  one  of  the  routes  from  Transcaucasia  to  Kerbela,  and 
the  shrines  have  been  multiplied  for  the  gratification  of  the 
pilgrims. 

What  an  interesting  sight  it  was  when,  on  the  thirteenth 
day's  march,  the  snow-capped  Alwand  (ten  thousand  feet 
high)  appeared  with  the  city  at  its  base,  and  the  fertile  plain 
stretching  in  front!  Hamadan,  the  southern  Ecbatana,  the 
Achmetha  of  Ezra  vi.  2,  the  capital  of  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians, renowned  for  its  palace  of  Darius  and  Xerxes,  and  the 
tomb  of  Esther  and  Mordecai — how  much  history  centers 
in  it  ! 

Hamadan  has  now  about  forty  thousand  inhabitants,  a  few 
of  them  Armenians,  four  thousand  Jews,  and  the  remainder 
Mohammedans.  It  lies  sixty-one  hundred  and  fifty-six  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  has  a  healthful  climate,  notwithstanding 
its  filthy  streets  and  malodorous  surroundings.  It  is  on  the 
highway  to  Turkey,  about  forty-five  miles  from  its  border. 
It  is  the  fourth  city  in  the  kingdom  in  commerce,  and  is 
especially  noted  for  its  leather.  \Vhat  antiquities  has  it  ? 
Excavations  have  not  been  made.  What  lies  buried  of  the 
city  captured  by  Cyrus,  Alexander,  and  Antiochus  the  Great 

156 


HAMAD^N,  AND    TAKHT-I-SULEIMAN  157 

is  unknown.  It  is  even  uncertain  what  descriptions  in  the 
classics  or  in  the  Book  of  Judith  apply  to  this  city.  Our  eyes, 
wandering  in  search  of  antiquities,  discovered  here  and  there 
a  pillar  or  a  carved  slab ;  but  it  was  hard  to  imagine,  as  we 
l)assed  through  the  narrow,  crooked,  muddy  streets,  that  this 
was  the  glorious  capital  of  Media.  The  obliteration  of  the 
ancient  grandeur  has  been  very  complete.  During  our  stay 
our  friends  piloted  us  about  and  showed  us  the  hons.  One  of 
these  is  such  in  no  figurative  sense.  Just  outside  the  city  is  a 
mammoth  stone  lion,  said  to  be  of  the  Median  period.  No 
wonder  its  eyes  are  dimmed  and  its  outlines  somewhat  rubbed 
away  by  twenty-five  hundred  winters.  The  people  regard  the 
lion  as  a  talisman  against  evil.  On  the  same  side  of  the  city 
is  the  Hill  of  Ahasuerus,  called  Musallah,  where  the  great 
palace,  fourteen  hundred  and  twenty  yards  in  circumference, 
described  by  the  Greeks,  and  the  treasure-house  of  Ezra  vi., 
are  supposed  to  have  stood.  All  the  rviins  that  appear  on  it 
are  modern,  for  it  was  leveled  by  Mohammed  Shah. 

Jewish  peddlers  brought  us  old  coins,  seals,  arrow-heads, 
and  teraphim,  which  had  been  found  in  the  plain  above  the 
city.  The  ground  is  overspread  with  numbers  of  these  small 
relics.  The  search  for  them  is  a  systematic  industry,  farmed 
out  by  the  government  for  revenue.  The  contractor  buys 
the  privilege  by  taking  off  the  earth  to  the  depth  of  a  yard  or 
more.  Trenches  are  then  dug.  The  soil  is  dissolved  in  water 
and  flows  into  dams,  where  the  heavy  matter  sinks.  The 
gravel  with  the  jewels,  coins,  and  other  relics  is  picked  over, 
and  the  valuables  separated.  Many  acres  have  thus  been 
worked  over.     Sometimes  valuable  antiques  are  discovered. 

One  day  we  went  a  two  hours'  ride  on  horseback  up  the 
side  of  the  Alwand  (Orontes),  to  see  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
of  Daritis  and  Xerxes.  They  occur  in  a  defile  of  the  moun- 
tain, called  the  Ganj-Nama  or  "  Treasure- writing,"  through 
which  the  ancient  road  to  Babylon  passed.     The  tradition 


158  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

is  that  they  tell  where  a  great  treasure  is  concealed,  and  who- 
ever shall  stand  and  read  in  audible  voice  the  inscription  shall 
have  opened  before  him  the  treasure  deposit.  How  true  this 
was!  For  the  Ganj-Nama  with  its  trihngual  inscription  fur- 
nished the  clue  to  the  cuneiform  alphabet,  and  so  opened  the 
treasures  of  the  libraries  of  Nineveh  and  other  cuneiform  liter- 
ature. Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  in  his  investigations,  first  exam- 
ined the  Hamadan  inscriptions,  and  added  to  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  discovered  by  Grotefend  and  Lassen.  He  was  thus 
enabled  to  begin  the  study  of  the  language  and  to  translate 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  everywhere. 

Preparatory  to  writing  the  Ganj-Nama,  the  red  granite  rock 
was  cut  into  and  smoothed  off.  The  inscriptions  are  in  two 
tablets,  each  about  five  feet  by  six,  with  three  columns  of 
writing,  of  twenty  lines  each.  They  are  written  in  Persian, 
Median,  and  Babylonian.  The  inscription  on  the  left  is 
by  Darius,  and  the  other  one  by  Xerxes.  The  former  is  as 
follows :  "  The  great  God  Ormuzd,  he  it  is  who  gave  this 
earth,  who  gave  that  heaven,  who  gave  mankind,  who  gave 
hfe  to  mankind,  who  made  Darius  king,  as  well  as  king  of  the 
people,  and  the  lawgiver  of  the  people.  I  am  Darius,  the 
king,  the  great  king,  the  king  of  kings,  the  king  of  nations, 
the  son  of  Hystaspcs,  the  Achasmenian  ! "  The  inscription  of 
Xerxes  is  almost  word  for  word  the  same. 

Similar  and  important  inscriptions  and  figures  commemorat- 
ing Cyrus,  Darius,  and  Xerxes  are  at  Murghab  or  Pasargada, 
Behistun,  Persepolis,  Naksh-i-Rustam,  and  Van. 

Other  sights  of  Hamadan  are  the  tombs  of  Avicenna  (Ibn- 
Sina),  the  celebrated  physician,  and  of  Esther  and  Morde- 
cai.  The  latter  stands  in  what  was  once  a  Jewish  cemetery, 
in  the  midst  of  the  city.  A  Mohammedan  mob  tore  up  the 
other  gravestones  and  leveled  the  surrounding  ground,  making 
of  it  a  public  square.  The  tomb  which  remained  is  an  unpre- 
tentious structure,  with  a  dome  about  thirty  feet  high.     It  is 


HAM/iDAN,  AND    TAKHT-I-SULEIMAN  159 

entered  by  a  low  door,  made  of  a  single  stone  moving  in 
sockets,  in  which  the  ends  of  the  stone  fit.  The  rabbi  in 
charge  unlocked  the  door  for  us.  The  two  tombs  are  covered 
by  wooden  sarcophagi,  carved  with  Hebrew  sentences,  and 
black  with  age.  Engraved  stones,  rescued  from  the  old  tomb 
destroyed  by  Tamerlane,  are  placed  in  the  walls.  They  are 
eulogies  of  Mordecai  and  Esther.  Under  the  framework 
lamps  burn  continually.  At  one  side  is  a  place  where  pieces 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  thrown,  too  old  for  use,  and  too 
sacred  to  destroy.  This  shrine  is  held  in  great  veneration  by 
the  Jews,  who  make  pilgrimages  to  it,  especially  during  the 
feast  of  Purini.  The  tomb  of  Avicenna  is  ornamented  with 
stucco-work,  which  is  said  to  be  the  most  artistic  in  Persia. 

On  leaving  Hamadan  we  had  for  a  week  almost  continuous 
rain  and  mud,  and  in  the  short  November  days  it  was  not  easy 
to  make  our  thirty  or  thirty-five  miles  a  day.  One  must  get 
accustomed  to  many  things  in  such  a  land  as  this.  We  be- 
came somewhat  used  to  cholera,  which  prevailed  more  or  less 
through  the  region  we  passed.  At  Bejar  the  cemetery  was 
inside  the  town,  so  they  had  interred  those  smitten  down 
by  the  cholera  near  a  village.  The  villagers,  enraged  and 
alarmed,  had  disinterred  the  bodies,  and  the  case  had  devel- 
oped into  a  quarrel  requiring  government  interference.  In 
one  lodging  there  were  two  cases  of  measles  in  the  next  room  ; 
in  another  three  children  had  the  smallpox,  and  before  they 
had  recovered  the  parents  celebrated  the  wedding  of  their 
daughter  with  a  feast  for  a  hundred  guests.  At  several  places 
we  encountered  the  poison-bug,  and  had  pustules  on  our  skin 
for  some  weeks. 

A  mishap  to  a  fellow-traveler  illustrated  several  points  of 
Mohammedan  devotion.  He  was  saying  his  morning  prayers 
by  the  roadside,  having  given  his  horse  to  another  to  hold, 
and  was  facing  Mecca.  In  the  midst  of  his  prayer  he  heard 
sounds  of  horse's  hoofs  behind,  but  turning  his  head  would 


160  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

have  invalidated  his  prayer.  When  he  finished  he  looked 
around  to  find  the  man  galloping  over  the  field  with  his  horse 
and  three  hundred  dollars  in  money,  which  sum  was  in  his 
saddle-bags. 

Toward  the  end  of  a  week  we  came  to  the  district  of  Af- 
shar,  a  name  given  from  one  of  the  seven  Guzul  Bashi  tribes. 
Afshar  is  an  interesting  region  historically  and  scientifically. 
Here  Antony  was  defeated  by  the  Parthians,  and  made  good 
his  retreat  over  the  Sahend  Mountains.  Long  before  that 
time  the  Medes  had  their  capital,  the  northern  Ecbatana,  at 
Takht-i-Suleiman.  Our  visit  to  this  place  was  one  of  the 
pleasantest  excursions  of  my  Persian  sojourn.  Striking  off 
the  caravan  road,  we  went  higher  and  higher  up  the  hills. 
From  certain  peaks  there  were  visible  wide  regions  of  Kur- 
distan, very  picturesque  and  grand.  By  noon  we  were  nine 
thousand  feet  above  sea-level.  We  lunched  by  the  ruins  of 
Takht-i-Suleiman.  This  means  the  "  Throne  of  Solomon," 
and  the  popular  idea  is  that  Solomon,  king  of  Israel,  here  held 
court,  with  the  divs  and  jinns  to  do  his  service,  and  the  birds 
as  his  messengers.  On  the  neighboring  peak,  ten  thousand 
feet  high,  called  Takht-i-Balkis,  they  placed  the  palace  of  the 
queen  of  Sheba.  There  two  hundred  divs  built  her  palace  in 
a  night,  at  the  bidding  of  Solomon.  She  demanded  a  house 
made  of  the  bones  of  birds,  and  thereby  hangs  the  tale  of  how 
the  owl  outwitted  Solomon.  The  wonderful  rock  formation 
on  the  hillside  is  supposed  to  be  a  great  dragon,  which  came 
to  attack  the  palace  and  was  turned  into  stone,  as  it  is  at  this 
day.  At  a  short  distance  from  the  place  is  a  "bottomless 
pit,"  where  the  divs  were  confined.  Natives  say  that  it  goes 
through  to  the  New  World.  Such  is  Takht-i-Suleiman  in 
legend ! 

Historically  it  probably  derived  its  present  name  from  Su- 
leiman Shah  Abuh,  of  Kurdistan,  who  lived  in  the  thirteenth 
century.     Anciently  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Medes,  where 


HAM/IDyIN,  AND    TAKHT-I-SULEIMAN  161 

C5n"us  deposited  the  wealth  of  Croesus.  Later  it  was  called 
Ganzaca  by  the  Greeks,  Kandzag  by  the  Armenians,  and  Shir 
by  the  Arabs,  Pompey  and  Antony  marched  against  it.  Here 
Heraclius  destroyed  the  celebrated  fire-temple  in  which  the 
image  of  Khosru  was  enthroned,  and  surrounded  by  emblems 
of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  Here  Bahram  was  attacked  by 
Narses  and  Khosru  Parviz.  When  the  Arabs  took  it  the 
jeweled  throne  of  Kai  Khosru  was  thrown  into  the  lake. 
Rawlinson  argues  that  it  was  Takht-i-Suleiman  that  Tobias  of 
the  Book  of  Tobit  visited.* 

This  hill,  where  the  palace  of  Deioces  stood,  is  of  peculiar 
formation.  An  active  hme-sinter  has  been  flowing  copiously 
for  ages,  and  has  deposited  the  limestone  on  its  side  until  it 
has  formed  a  hill  two  hundred  feet  high  and  of  large  circum- 
ference. On  the  summit  of  this  hill  is  a  fountain  or  lake 
three  hundred  paces  in  circumference,  of  pleasant  taste,  clear 
and  beautiful,  and  flowing  strong  enough  to  form  a  small 
creek.  The  stream  has  flowed  to  one  side  and  made  its  de- 
posit in  a  winding,  serpent-like  shape,  from  ten  to  twenty  feet 
high  and  several  yards  wide.  This  formation,  possibly  an  in- 
crusted  wall  of  the  old  defenses,  is  what  the  native  imagina- 
tion has  called  the  petrified  dragon.  The  fountain  or  lake 
was  supposed  to  be  bottomless ;  but  an  Afshar  girl  having 
thrown  herself  in  because  of  disappointment  in  love,  a  chief 
ordered  it  to  be  sounded,  and  it  was  found  to  be  about  one 
hundred  and  sixty  feet  deep.  Around  the  fountain  the  palaces 
were  built,  the  walls  of  the  fortifications  encircling  one  another 
on  the  hillsides.  The  wall  is  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  circuit 
and  twelve  feet  thick.  The  solid  masonry  arches  of  a  cellar 
are  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  with  walls  fifteen  feet  thick. 
Rawlinson  thinks  they  are  a  part  of  the  great  fire-temple.  A 
magnificent  arch,  tall  as  a  four-story  building,  and  covered 

*  "  Journal  Royal  Geographical  Society,"  vol.  x. 


162  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

with  tiles  and  stucco-work,  is  the  ruin  of  a  palace  or  mosque 
built  by  Abaka  Khan  Mongol  (a.d.  1281). 

Some  distance  from  these  is  another  hill  covered  with  curi- 
ously shaped  limestone  formations.  We  climbed  its  steep, 
rocky  sides  and  looked  down  into  the  crater — an  immense  pit 
left  by  an  extinct  fountain  of  a  lime-sinter.  Its  size  is  seventy 
feet  by  one  hundred  and  twenty,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  deep.  Pigeons  and  other  birds  have  built  their  nests  in 
the  recesses  of  the  cone.  Its  bottom  is  dry,  and  a  strong 
sulphurous  smell  exhales  from  it,  appropriate  indeed  as  com- 
ing from  the  prison  of  the  divs.  Another  of  these  lime-sinters 
has  formed  quite  a  lake,  on  which  is  a  floating  island  covered 
with  grass. 

In  the  process  of  these  formations,  and  by  volcanic  action, 
there  have  been  brought  to  the  surface  of  this  region  mercury, 
arsenic,  sulphiir,  and  other  minerals.  During  our  visit  Mr. 
David  Ferguson,  civil  engineer,  of  Glasgow,  with  eight  Eng- 
lishmen, was  there  prospecting  for  the  Mining  Corporation. 
The  accountant  of  the  company  was  Mr.  Galosd  Vartan,  an 
Armenian  British  subject,  who  is  now  secretary  to  the  British 
consul-general  at  Tabriz.  We  were  their  guests  over  Sunday, 
and  I  preached  to  them.  It  was  the  first  time  a  sermon  had 
been  heard  in  that  region  since  old  Nestorian  times.  Mr. 
Ferguson  had  been  specially  prospecting  for  cinnabar  and 
mercury.  They  had  sunk  some  shafts  and  got  some  samples. 
They  found  traces  of  the  mines  having  been  worked  in  bygone 
ages.  By  whom  ?  Mr.  Ferguson  named  the  horse  he  rode 
while  investigating  the  region  Cinnabar,  and  soon  the  Persians 
invented  the  story  that  the  horse  was  very  intelligent,  and  by 
smell  or  some  other  faculty  knew  where  the  mines  should  be 
opened,  and  led  his  master  to  the  spot.  An  English  mining- 
camp  in  Afshar  gave  us  hope  that  soon  the  steam-engine 
might  do  greater  work  there  than  the  divs  of  Solomon.  But 
unfortunately  the  mercury  failed  to  materialize  in  sufficient 


HAM  AD  AN,  AND   TAKHT-I-SULEIMAN  163 

quantities,  and  the  corps  of  workmen,  after  two  years  of  min- 
ing, went  back  to  England.  The  expenses  for  machinery  and 
travel  were  heavy,  and  the  engineer  received  five  thousand 
and  each  artisan  one  thousand  dollars  a  year.  It  is  a  matter 
of  great  regret  that  this  effort  to  develop  the  resources  of 
Persia  did  not  succeed. 

From  Afshar  we  crossed  the  Pass  of  Mahi-Bulak  to  Sain- 
Kala.  On  the  right  of  the  road  are  the  grottoes  of  Kereftu. 
They  are  a  score  of  excavated  rooms,  with  many  winding 
passages.  Over  the  entrance  is  a  Greek  inscription.  Ker 
Porter,  who  described  these  grottoes  in  detail,  supposed  they 
were  used  for  the  initiation  of  neophytes  into  the  religion  of 
Zoroaster.  Thence  we  came  along  the  Jagatai  River  to  Mian- 
duab  and  back  to  Tabriz. 


CHAPTER    X 

THE    CONDITION    AND    NEEDS    OF    PERSIA 

PERSIA  in  the  past  has  been  the  scene  of  great  historic 
events.  As  a  "  land  of  Oriental  splendor  "  it  has  appealed 
to  the  imagination  of  the  Western  world.  Persia  to-day 
sufiFers  by  the  contrast.  Though  much  reduced  in  territory,  it 
is  still  an  extensive  domain,  extending  seven  hundred  miles 
from  east  to  west  and  nine  hundred  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  comprising  six  hundred  and  twenty-eight  thousand  square 
miles — a  territory  equal  to  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
and  Ireland,  with  several  of  the  smaller  states  of  Europe,  or 
to  that  part  of  the  United  States  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi 
and  north  of  Tennessee.  But  its  uncultivated  area  is  said  to 
be  three  fourths  of  the  whole,  while  one  salt  desert  is  as  large 
as  Great  Britain,  or  as  the  States  of  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  central  part  of  the  country  is  an  immense  plateau, 
three  hundred  and  forty  thousand  square  miles  in  area,  with 
an  average  altitude  of  thirty-seven  hundred  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  Elburz  range  bounds  this  central  plateau  on  the 
north,  and  the  Zagros  on  the  west  and  center.  These  moun- 
tain-ranges are  seven  or  eight  thousand  feet  in  altitude,  and 
rise  to  such  noble  peaks  as  Ararat,  Sahend  near  Tabriz,  Savalan 
near  Ardebil,  Alwand  near  Hamadan,  and  Damavand  near 
Teheran,  all  ranging  from  twelve  thousand  to  eighteen  thou- 
sand four  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet,  and  several  of  them 
covered  with  perpetual  snow.  On  the  other  hand,  the  south- 
ern coast  is  a  region  of  intense  heat,  the  northern  provinces 

164 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS  OF  PERSIA  165 

which  border  on  the  Caspian  lying  below  ocean  level  and  pro- 
ducing semi-tropical  vegetation.  The  words  of  Cyrus  to 
Xenophon  are  true  of  modern  Persia :  "  People  perish  with 
cold  at  one  point,  while  they  are  suffocated  with  heat  at  an- 
other." 

The  central  plateau  has  a  delightful  climate.  Its  atmosphere 
has  been  pronounced  "remarkable  above  that  of  all  other 
countries  for  dryness  and  purity."  The  seasons  come  with 
healthful  regularity.  Tabriz  has  a  climate  of  special  excel- 
lence. The  summer  heat  is  moderated  by  a  mountain  breeze, 
which  penetrates  every  nook  and  corner,  purifies  the  air,  and 
makes  the  nights  delightfully  cool ;  yet  the  atmosphere  is  so 
dry  that  sleeping  in  a  draught  is  not  injurious.  Sunstroke  is 
exceedingly  rare. 

A  false  impression  concerning  the  heat  of  Persia  prevails 
in  Western  lands,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  travelers  have 
reported  definitely  concerning  its  winters.  Rawlinson  *  speaks 
of  snow  to  the  depth  of  several  feet,  and  of  a  keen  wind,  "  the 
assassin  of  life."  Ker  Porter t  says  that  "scarcely  a  day 
passes  in  winter  without  one  or  two  persons  being  frozen  to 
death  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tabriz."  In  1881  snow  fell 
near  Tabriz  on  September  13th.  In  Urumia  sleighing  has 
continued  for  as  long  as  four  months,  the  temperature  at  times 
reaching  7°  F.  below  zero,  and  insuring  a  good  crop  of  ice 
for  the  following  summer's  use. 

Notwithstanding  the  wide  extent  of  territory  and  the  variety 
of  climate  possessed  by  Persia,  it  has  been  for  some  centuries 
in  a  state  of  weakness.  It  is  but  a  shadow  of  the  Persia  of 
the  past.  Its  population  is  small  and  sparse.  Even  its  most 
fertile  plains  have  no  such  diversity  of  population  as  is  found 
in  India  or  China.  The  total  population  is  estimated  at  nine 
millions,  of  whom  two  millions  are  nomads.  The  races  repre- 
sented are  Persians,  Tartars  or  Turks,  Kurds,  and  Lurs,  with 

*  "  History,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  285,  t  "  Travels,"  vol.  i.,  p.  257. 


166  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  Armenians,  Nestorians, 
Jews,  and  Parsees. 

It  might  be  profitable  to  discuss  the  question  whether  this 
low  condition  of  Persia  is  hopeless  and  irremediable.  That 
can  best  be  determined  by  considering  whether  the  causes  of 
its  decHne  are  in  the  land  and  the  people,  or  in  conditions 
and  circumstances  capable  of  change  and  amelioration.  I 
believe  the  latter  can  be  shown. 

In  the  first  place,  the  decline  of  Persia  is  not  due  to  sterility 
of  the  soil.  The  cultivated  parts  of  Persia  are  rich  and  pro- 
ductive. When  irrigated  it  is  only  necessary  "  to  tickle  the 
soil  with  a  hoe  and  it  will  laugh  into  harvests."  Its  wheat 
has  been  pronounced  the  best  in  the  world.  It  produces  also 
rice,  barley,  millet,  and  maize.  Its  gardens  are  famous.  Its 
grapes  and  peaches  ( Potnum  Persicum)  are  most  luscious,  and 
are,  on  the  average,  better  than  any  I  have  known.  Grapes 
in  the  bunch  are  hung  in  a  dry  place  and  kept  until  March. 
The  other  fruits  largely  cultivated  are  the  apricot,  nectarine, 
almond,  pear,  pomegranate,  orange,  lemon,  mulberry,  melon, 
eda  or  singian-date,*  and  the  fig,  all  of  which  are  of  good 
quality,  while  the  cherry,  apple,  plum,  and  some  of  the  other 
fruits  are  of  inferior  flavor.  The  sunflower-seeds  are  used  for 
food  on  the  Caspian  coast.  Nuts  and  berries  grow  wild  in 
the  forests.  Excellent  honey  is  abundant.  Most  of  the  com- 
mon garden  vegetables  are  now  cultivated,  and  a  great  variety 
of  herbs  are  used.  Sugar-cane  is  at  home  in  southern  Persia. 
Silk,  tobacco,  and  opium  are  extensively  grown.  Cotton  is  a 
good  crop,t  and  it  is  stated  that  enough  cotton  could  be  raised 

*  The  eda  is  the  size  of  a  peanut.  It  is  very  abundant,  and  is  the  food 
of  the  poor.  Though  worth  a  cent  per  pound,  one  date  was  sold  by  an 
enterprising  Persian  at  the  Chicago  Exposition  for  a  dollar.  Its  leaf  and 
blossom  are  very  beautiful,  and  have  a  delightful  perfume. 

+  Ten  million  pounds  of  cotton,  eight  million  pounds  of  wool,  and  one 
million  two  hundred  thousand  dollars'  worth  of  opium  are  yearly  exported. 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  167 

in  Persia  to  supply  the  markets  of  western  Europe.  Flowers, 
both  wild  and  cultivated,  flourish  in  great  beauty  and  variety. 
The  domestic  and  wild  animals  of  the  temperate  zone  are 
also  found  in  Persia.  Trout  are  abundant  in  the  mountain 
streams,  and  salmon  and  other  fish  provide  a  profitable  in- 
dustry  in  the  tributaries  of  the  Caspian.  A  country  with  such 
a  climate  and  soil,  and  perfecting  such  products,  certainly  has 
capability. 

Not  a  little  of  the  uncultivated  portion  of  Persia  is  desert, 
much  in  the  same  way  as  Colorado  and  California  once  were. 
Only  irrigation  is  necessary  to  produce  abundant  fertility. 

Nor  is  Persia  lacking  in  mineral  resources.  These  are  as 
yet  largely  undeveloped ;  but  coal,  iron,  lead,  copper,  arsenic, 
mercury,  sulphur,  asbestos,  mica,  marble,  and  manganese  are 
found,  and  some  of  them  are  at  present  being  mined.  Gold- 
dust  is  found  in  the  Jagatai  River,  and  in  the  naphtha-springs 
near  Bushire.  The  pearl-fisheries  of  the  Persian  Gulf  are  very 
productive,  while  the  turquoise-mines  of  Khorassan  are  pro- 
nounced the  richest  in  the  world. 

Nor  is  there  any  inherent  lack  of  vitality  in  the  people. 
The  races  show  no  exhaustion  of  energy ;  the  men  are  strong 
and  the  women  prolific,  and  freer  from  disease  than  their 
more  civilized  contemporaries.  The  Kurds,  Lurs,  and  Tartar 
Turks  have  the  usual  vigor  of  mountain  tribes  accustomed  to 
nomadic  life.  The  peasants  are  sturdy,  healthy,  and  inured 
to  hardship.  The  men  of  the  cities  have  fine  physiques  and 
good  constitutions.  The  rate  of  mortality  among  infants  is 
high.  Perhaps  not  one  in  six  survives ;  indeed,  it  is  said  that 
not  one  in  ten  reaches  maturity.  This  mortality  is  due  to  no 
racial  decline,  and  could  be  largely  remedied.  Nature  carries 
on  the  struggle  for  existence  against  the  neglect,  ignorance, 
and  indifference  of  parents.  Exposure,  improper  clothing, 
injudicious  diet,  and  other  breaches  of  sanitary  laws,  carry  off 
the  children  to  early  graves. 


168  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

The  present  inhabitants  of  Persia,  like  those  of  Europe,  have 
had  the  advantage  of  a  mixture  of  blood.  Over  the  lands  of 
the  Medes  and  Persians  and  Parthians  have  swept  Arabs,  Sel- 
juks,  Turkomans,  Mongols,  and  Turks  in  their  successive 
incursions  and  conquests.  Iran  and  Turan  have  been  com- 
mingled. The  last  hordes  from  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia 
have  left  the  most  distinct  mark  and  retain  the  ascendancy, 
the  ruling  Kajar  dynasty  being  of  Tartar-Turkish  extraction. 
The  present  people  is  the  resultant  of  the  fusion  of  these 
many  elements  through  a  long  series  of  years.  Their  physiog- 
nomy is  a  mixed  one.  Just  as  the  Osmanlis  have  been  im- 
proved in  beauty  by  the  mixture  of  Georgians  and  Circassians, 
so  the  Tartar  Turks  of  northern  Persia  have  been  refined  by 
admixture  with  the  Persians.  In  color  they  are  slightly  darker 
than  Anglo-Saxons,  of  medium  height,  with  prominent  but,  on 
the  whole,  agreeable  features. 

Famine  and  earthquake  have  had  some  effect  in  keeping 
down  the  population  of  Persia.  But  the  former  is  due  to  un- 
scientific agriculture  and  to  a  lack  of  proper  and  extended 
irrigation,  together  with  a  want  of  good  facilities  for  transpor- 
tation. The  famine  of  1879  was  partly  caused  by  the  substi- 
tution of  the  culture  of  opium  for  grain.  The  ravages  of 
locusts  caused  a  scarcity  of  food  in  Karadagh  in  1890.  The 
central  plateau  of  Persia  is  volcanic,  and  scarcely  a  year  passes 
without  some  shocks  of  earthquake.  Frequently  these  seismic 
shocks  are  severe  enough  to  cause  walls  and  houses  to  crack 
and  crumble,  burying  numbers  beneath  them.*  Sometimes 
they  are  overwhelming  disasters.  On  November  17,  1893,  an 
earthquake  destroyed  every  house  in  Kuchan,  Khorassan.  On 
that  occasion  twelve  thousand  persons  were  killed,  out  of  a 
population  of  twenty  or  twenty-five  thousand,  and  fifty  thou- 
sand head  of  cattle  perished.  Within  a  week  one  hundred 
and  sixty  distinct  shocks  were  felt.  The  town  had  been  par- 
tially rebuilt  when  it  was  again  destroyed  in  January,  1895. 

*  This  was  the  case  in  Tabriz,  August  2,  1874,  and  again  in  May,  1883. 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS  OF  PERSIA  169 

One  hundred  women  in  a  bath-house  were  crushed  to  death. 
Survivors  suffered  severely  from  the  intense  cold.  Notwith- 
standing these  calamities,  earthquakes  are  neither  severe  nor 
frequent  enough  to  count  as  an  important  factor  in  the  prob- 
lem of  population. 

Nor  is  the  backward  state  of  Persia  due  to  any  intellectual 
feebleness.  The  Persians  have  alert,  active  minds.  They  are 
untrained  and  unscientific,  but  naturally  intelligent,  subtle  in 
argument,  sharp  in  business,  skilful  in  imitation,  artistic  in  exe- 
cution, socially  entertaining,  fond  of  humor,  dehghting  in 
poetry  and  music,  and  remarkably  well  informed  for  their  lim- 
ited opportunities.  Persian  art  and  civilization  gave  birth  to 
Arab  culture  in  Bagdad  and  Spain,  with  its  philosophy,  mathe- 
matics, amd  architecture.  Persian  poets  have  sung  in  immor- 
tal verse.  Henry  Martyn's  estimate  of  them  was :  "  They  are 
a  people  clever  and  intelligent,  and  more  calculated  to  become 
great  and  powerful  than  any  of  the  other  nations  of  the  East." 
Minister  Benjamin  remarks :  "  Persia,  if  the  powers  would  let 
her  alone,  has  vitality  enough  to  carry  her  to  another  epoch 
of  national  greatness." 

Nor  is  there  lack  of  abihty  in  the  rulers  of  Persia.  Nazir-i- 
Din,  the  present  shah,  is  a  man  of  marked  talent,  great  energy, 
strong  grasp  of  the  details  of  administration,  fine  discernment 
in  politics,  alert  to  the  demands  of  the  times,  and  with  an  earn- 
est desire  for  the  progress  of  the  realm.  Coming  to  the  throne 
in  1848,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  he  has  had  a  lengthened  reign, 
characterized  by  peace,  progress,  and  prosperity,  which  has 
few  equals  in  the  annals  of  Persia. 

I  saw  the  shah  when  he  passed  through  Tabriz  en  route  for 
Europe  on  the  occasion  of  his  last  visit.  His  Majesty  traveled 
with  an  immense  caravan,  miles  in  extent.  He  is  said  to  have 
had  eighteen  hundred  horses  and  mules  and  four  thousand 
soldiers  in  his  retinue,  with  all  the  necessary  instruments, 
even  to  the  bastinado,  for  administering  punishment.  Two 
sets  of  tents  and  appurtenances  were  used,  one  set  being  for- 


170  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

warded  and  made  ready  for  his  Majesty's  arrival,  while  he 
leisurely  remained  at  ease  in  the  other.  He  rode  in  a  carriage 
over  the  stretches  of  good  road,  and  took  to  horseback  over 
the  rough  or  mountainous  regions.  Three  weeks  were  occu- 
pied in  his  progress  from  the  capital  to  the  border.  Great 
preparations  were  made  at  Tabriz  for  his  arrival :  "  The  way 
was  prepared,  the  crooked  made  straight,  and  the  rough  places 
smooth."  Bridges  were  repaired,  streets  cleaned  and  paved, 
many  walls  rebuilt  and  whitened,  shops  adorned,  and  thou- 
sands of  street  lamps  put  up  before  the  houses,  so  that  the 
city  was  for  the  first  time  brilliantly  lighted.  A  triumphal 
arch  was  erected  at  the  head  of  the  avenue  (Kheaban)  enter- 
ing from  Teheran.  It  was  covered  with  flags  and  bunting, 
together  with  the  national  emblems — the  Lion  and  the  Sun. 
The  base  was  covered  with  sod,  in  which  pots  of  gay  flowers 
were  placed.  The  crown  prince,  the  governor-general,  and 
many  of  the  officials,  with  their  retinues,  went  four  days'  jotu"- 
ney  to  meet  the  shah.  He  entered  the  city,  in  the  gaze  of 
thousands  of  his  subjects,  adorned  with  jewels  and  decora- 
tions, and  accompanied  by  a  retinue  brilliant  with  colors  and 
gold.  Foreign  residents  who  went  out  to  meet  him  were 
saluted  most  graciously.  A  group  of  Christians,  chiefly  Arme- 
nians, presented  an  address  to  his  Majesty,  and  sang  songs  of 
welcome.  At  night  there  were  illuminations  and  fireworks  all 
over  the  city.  On  the  next  day  there  was  a  military  review 
in  the  Medan-i-Mashk,  or  drill-ground.  The  shah  alighted 
from  his  carriage,  walked  into  the  medan,  answered  the  salute 
of  the  soldiers,  and  then  took  his  position  on  the  stand  to 
witness  the  evolutions.  He  was  dressed  in  a  plain  black  suit, 
and  the  Vali  Ahd  in  one  of  grayish  blue.  The  uniformed 
oflficers  were  splendidly  mounted.  General  von  Wagner,  the 
Austrian  drill-master,  rode  along  the  lines  with  sword  drawn, 
and  giving  his  orders  in  a  stentorian  voice.  The  results  of  his 
painstaking  efforts  to  improve  the  royal  army  were  evident. 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  171 

After  the  review  a  company  of  acrobats,  dressed  in  red  and 
yellow,  gave  a  gymnastic  exhibition.  While  the  review  was 
in  progress  Ave  had  a  good  view  of  the  shah.  He  had  a  truly 
royal  mien,  filling  the  popular  ideal.  His  appearance  was 
more  youthful,  and  his  strength  greater,  than  one  expected  to 
find  in  a  man  past  sixty,  who  had  borne  the  cares  of  empire 
for  over  twoscore  years. 

On  the  following  night  the  city  was  again  illuminated,  and 
the  sky  bright  with  pyrotechnics.  Around  the  edges  of  the  flat 
roofs  of  the  houses  little  earthen  bowls  were  placed  and  filled 
with  flaxseed  or  castor  oil,  and  with  wicks  of  twisted  cotton. 
Their  light  made  the  city  brilliant.  On  the  morrow  a  great 
crowd  poured  out  on  the  road  to  get  a  glimpse  of  the  royal  party. 

The  Vali  Ahd  or  crown  prince  of  Persia  is  Muzaffir-i-Din, 
the  eldest  son  of  the  shah  by  a  royal  mother.  He  has  never 
been  tried  by  the  great  responsibilities  of  government,  so  that 
his  capacity  is  largely  unknown.  One  marked  characteristic 
of  the  prince  is  his  religious  disposition.  He  is  a  man  of 
faith,  free  from  the  rationalistic  tendencies  of  some  of  the 
ruling  class.  He  is  devout  in  his  fulfilment  of  religious  rites, 
and  a  total  abstainer  from  intoxicants.  He  has  a  humane 
and  sympathetic  nature.  The  mother  of  a  condemned  man 
can  appeal  to  him  with  large  assurance  of  mercy.  He  is  a 
friend  of  education,  taking  a  great  interest  in  the  government 
school  at  Tabriz,  having  European  tutors  for  the  education  of 
his  sons,  and  encouraging  his  interpreters  to  translate  standard 
works  into  Persian.  He  is  much  interested  in  telegraphy, 
photography,  and  like  practical  arts.  He  has  a  fondness  for 
flowers  and  for  new  and  rare  plants,  and  enjoys  tent  life  and 
the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  often  camping  with  his  retinue  on 
the  mountains. 

For  some  years  the  Zil-i-Sultan,  the  eldest  son  of  the  shah 
and  the  governor  of  Ispahan,  was  regarded  as  a  rival  of  the 
Vali  Ahd  for  the  succession.      But  the  disfavor  of  the  shah. 


172  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

and  later  an  affliction  of  blindness,  have  removed  this  possi- 
bility. When  word  of  the  critical  condition  of  the  Zil-i-Sultan's 
eyes  reached  Tabriz  the  Vali  Ahd  sent  word  to  the  mosques 
announcing  the  fact,  and  requesting  that  prayers  be  offered 
for  his  brother.  The  Vah  Ahd  has  lately  strengthened  himself 
by  the  marriage  of  his  children  with  some  of  the  most  power- 
ful nobles  of  the  realm. 

One  of  these  royal  weddings  attracted  special  attention,  and 
furnished  an  interesting  exhibition  of  how  such  events  are 
conducted  in  Persia,  This  was  the  wedding  of  Izat-i-Sultanah 
(the  "  Glory  of  the  Kingdom  "),  the  eldest  son  of  the  Vali 
Ahd,  with  Malaka-i-Jehan  (the  "  Queen  of  the  World  "),  a 
daughter  of  the  Naib-i-Sultanah,  minister  of  war  and  son  of 
the  shah.  The  marriage  contract  was  executed  by  proxy  at 
Teheran,  in  the  presence  of  the  shah.  The  princess  was 
brought  to  her  royal  husband  in  a  takktarevan  (moving 
throne),  covered  with  a  rich  Persian  shawl,  and  was  accom- 
panied by  a  military  guard  and  a  caravan  of  one  hundred  and 
forty  pack-animals,  loaded  with  a  dowry  of  the  finest  articles 
of  the  land.  On  her  approach  to  Tabriz  a  letter  was  sent  to 
the  prince  announcing  her  arrival,  and  he  went  out  to  meet 
her.  There  was  a  great  peeshvaz  and  popular  reception.  The 
bazaars  were  closed  by  order  of  the  government.  The  consuls, 
officials,  and  the  whole  city  went  out  to  meet  the  cavalcade. 
In  the  midst  of  the  gaiety  an  untoward  incident  occurred. 
The  prince — master  of  ceremonies — accused  another  prince 
of  pressing  too  near  the  carriage  of  the  princess,  and  ordered 
him  to  be  beaten  on  the  spot. 

The  princess  was  conducted  to  the  palace  in  the  Bagh-i- 
Shamal  or  "  Prince's  Garden."  A  week  of  festivities  followed. 
These  had  two  centers  :  one  at  the  Bagh-i-Shamal,  in  charge  of 
Prince  Ayn-i-Doulah,  the  other  in  the  city  palace,  in  charge  of 
General  Nazm-i-Sultanah.  These  officers  spared  no  expense 
in  making  the  occasion  one  of  unusual  magnificence.     Feasts 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  173 

were  held  for  different  classes  on  successive  days.  First  the 
princes  and  highest  officials,  then  the  mollas,  followed  by  the 
consuls  and  foreign  officials  and  the  wealthy  classes  in  general, 
were  feted.  Music  and  acrobatic  entertainments  were  part  of 
the  festivities,  except  on  the  day  when  the  mollas  were  invited. 
Free  dinners  and  tea  were  served  to  the  public.  Magnificent 
presents  were  made  by  the  nobles.  It  was  reported  that  the 
Zil-i-Sultan  sent  a  gift  of  ten  thousand  tomans,  and  other 
officials  one  or  two  thousand  gold  pieces.  Seven  or  eight 
arches  were  erected  by  prominent  noblemen,  spanning  the 
road  through  which  the  wedding  procession  must  pass  in  going 
from  the  Bagh-i-Shamal  to  the  residence  of  the  Izat-i-Sultanah. 
The  arches  were  covered  with  bunting,  flags,  and  transparen- 
cies inscribed  with  mottoes  from  the  poets.  They  were  orna- 
mented with  glassware,  lamps,  and  lanterns.  The  nobles  vied 
with  one  another  in  making  this  display,  expending  on  it,  it  was 
said,  forty  thousand  tomans.  Tea  was  freely  served  under 
these  arches,  while  the  "  Prince's  Garden  "  was  gaily  decorated 
and  thrown  open  to  the  pubhc. 

On  the  wedding  night  the  ehte  gathered  on  the  hne  of  the 
procession.  The  princess,  completely  veiled,  after  the  custom 
of  the  country,  and  with  a  French  bridal  veil  over  all,  was 
seated  in  a  closed  carriage,  and  escorted  by  the  crown  prince 
and  a  company  of  soldiers,  amid  a  display  of  fireworks  and  an 
immense  concourse  of  people,  who  thronged  the  streets  and 
looked  down  from  the  roofs.  When  they  reached  their  des- 
tination the  crown  prince  presented  the  bride  to  the  young 
prince.  On  the  following  days  festivals  were  continued  in 
the  palace  and  among  the  ladies  of  the  harems. 

From  this  digression  regarding  royal  persons  and  customs 
I  return  to  the  consideration  of  the  ability  of  the  shah  as  a 
ruler,  and  will  now  present  some  facts  concerning  Persia  during 
his  reign. 


174  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

The  shah  has  steered   the  ship  of  state  in  comparatively 
peaceful  waters.      While    neighboring   countries   have  been 
convulsed  with  great  wars,  Persia  has  been  slightly  disturbed 
The  expedition  of  the  English  (1853)  on  the  Persian  Gulf  did 
not  assume  large  proportions.    The  Afghan  War  and  the  siege 
of  Herat  brought  little  trouble  to  Persia.     The  insurrection  of 
the  Babis,  and  a  few  raids  of  the  Kurds  and  Turkomans,  com- 
plete the  list  of  the  country's  troubles.     Persian  territory  prac- 
tically remains  the  same,  while  Turkey  has  meanwhile  been 
bereft  of  many  and  populous  provinces.     The  island  of  Ashor- 
abad  and  a  part  of  northern  Khorassan  have  passed  to  Russia 
while  the  district  of  Kutur  was  recovered  by  Persia  by  thJ 
treaty  of  Beriin.     The  definite  settlement  of  the  boundaries 
has  tended  greatly  to  preserve  peace.     The  present  situation 
IS  m  striking  contrast  with  the  state  of  things  that  prevailed  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  when  Persia  was  in  perpetual  anarchy, 
and  when  for  a  period  of  fifty  years  the  throne  was  occupied 
by  eight  shahs,  while  large  provinces  were  temporarily  torn 
from  the  kingdom  by  rebellious  khans. 

The  enlargement  of  the  diplomatic  intercourse  of  Persia 
has  been  marked.     In  addition  to  the  envoys  from  England 
France,  Russia,  and  Turkey,  there  have  been  added  the  Aus- 
tro-Hunganan,  German,  Dutch,  and  American,  while  the  rep- 
resentatives of  the  shah  are  now  stationed  at  the  important 
European  capitals.     The  shah  has  formed  treaties  of  com- 
merce with  the  great  nations  of  the  worid,  and  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  foreigners  have  been  guaranteed.     The  importa- 
tion of  African  or  Arabian  slaves  has  been  discountenanced 
and  treaty  engagements  have  been  entered  into  with  England 
for  the  abolition  of  such  trade  on  the  Persian  Gulf.     Com- 
merce has  advanced  with  huge  strides.    Notwithstanding  many 
drawbacks,  the  reign  has  been  one  of  greater  commercial  en- 
terpnse  than  Persia  has  seen  for  centuries.    The  volume  and 
variety  of  both  imports  and  exports  have  increased.     Regular 


I^M 


-^ik^^^i- 


ClUAko 


.JlLM 


;^ 


uv(^P^C?J»-'C5? 


dy^^j/; 


iAJuj     ^\L>,^/^ ^    r>  g>r^" 


Persian    Ieleukam. 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  175 

steam  communication  from  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Persian  Gulf 
ports  has  facihtated  traffic.  A  system  of  custom-houses,  no 
more  annoying  than  those  of  other  lands,  has  been  established. 
A  royal  mint,  run  by  steam,  has  given  a  more  uniform  system 
of  coinage.  The  letter-post  has  been  much  perfected.  In 
the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  also  in  the  time  of  the  Mongol  Gazan 
Khan,  letter-carriers  went  with  frequent  changes  of  horses 
over  the  royal  highways;  but  this,  I  imagine,  was  largely  on 
official  business.  The  first  American  missionaries  received 
their  letters  in  Urumia  by  sending  a  messenger  to  Tabriz  once 
a  month,  to  bring  the  mail  which  had  been  forwarded  from 
Constantinople  by  English  courier.  Since  then  connection 
has  been  made  with  the  International  Postal  Union.  The 
issuing  of  stamps  was  begun  in  1877,  and  post-offices  have 
been  established  in  all  the  chief  cities  and  towns  of  the  king- 
dom. They  now  number  ninety-five.  A  fairly  good  system 
is  in  operation.  It  sometimes  lags,  as  in  the  winter  of  1893, 
when  it  took  five  days  to  carry  the  mail  between  Urumia  and 
Tabriz,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles.  The 
mail  from  the  United  States  reaches  Tabriz  in  four  weeks. 
Eight  mails  arrive  weekly  from  different  directions. 

The  telegraph  system  was  introduced  in  Persia  by  the  Indo- 
European  Telegraph  Company.  After  extending  it  from  Lon- 
don through  Germany  and  Russia,  it  enters  Persia  at  Julfa,  and 
goes  through  Tabriz  to  Teheran,  where  it  meets  the  Indian 
government  line.  The  Persian  government  has  the  privilege 
of  putting  wires  on  the  company's  iron  posts.  The  telegraph 
has  since  been  extended  to  every  important  place  in  the  king- 
dom, and  two  lines  connect  with  Turkey,  making  in  all  a  tele- 
graph service  of  forty-one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  has 
become  one  of  the  great  institutions  of  government.  Its  offi- 
cers are  given  rank  as  colonels  and  generals.  They  are  the 
shah's  special  and  trusted  agents.  They  must  make  daily 
reports  to  him,  giving  an  account  of  all  the  events  of  their 


176  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

district  or  city.  The  slightest  disturbance  is  immediately  re- 
ported to  the  capital.  A  restraint  is  thus  put  upon  oppression, 
for  a  governor  never  knows  how  much  may  pass  over  the 
wires.  Much  government  business  is  carried  on  by  telegraph. 
A  governor  is  even  called  to  the  telegraph-office,  and  the  shah 
from  the  other  end  of  the  line  consults  with  and  directs  him 
in  detail.  Moreover,  the  telegraph-office  is  a  quasi  place  of 
refuge.  Any  one  having  an  appeal  from  a  governor  or  other 
official  to  present  to  the  shah  can  take  refuge  at  the  telegraph- 
office,  send  a  direct  petition,  and  remain  in  security  until  his 
answer  is  received.  This  is  exemplified  by  a  circumstance 
that  happened  when  the  export  duty  on  raisins  was  increased 
arbitrarily  at  Tabriz.  The  leading  Armenian  merchants,  repre- 
senting an  annual  trade  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  tomans, 
proceeded  to  the  telegraph-office  and  remained  until  their 
grievance  was  redressed.  When  Fath  Ali  Shah  died  in  Ispahan 
in  1834,  the  news  by  swift  royal  courier  was  two  weeks  in 
reaching  the  heir-apparent  in  Tabriz,  and  rival  claimants  had 
time  to  prepare  for  revolt.  Now  the  death  of  the  shah  could 
be  communicated  instantly  to  the  Vali  Ahd  by  telegraph  con- 
necting with  his  own  palace. 

The  telegraph  is  not  kept  in  the  best  repair,  and  sometimes 
days  are  required  for  an  answer.  On  the  road  through  Ghilan 
the  wires  are  attached  to  trees,  whose  movement,  dampness, 
etc.,  often  interfere  with  communication.  The  London"  Times" 
says  that  a  telegram  was  sent  from  London  announcing  that  a 
high  official  from  Europe  would  reach  Resht  in  a  fortnight. 
The  telegram  was  received  the  same  day  in  Teheran  by  the 
European  line,  and  delivered  to  the  Persian  line  to  be  for- 
warded. The  official  arrived  in  Resht,  and  the  telegram  was 
received  in  his  presence  eighteen  days  after  its  despatch! 

Very  little  has  been  accomplished  in  the  way  of  providing 
railways  for  Persia.  A  line  six  miles  long,  from  the  capital  to 
the  shrine  of  Shah  Abdul  Azim,  was  opened  in  July,  1888. 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  111 

One  was  started  from  Mahmoudabad,  on  the  Caspian,  to 
Amol,  twenty-five  miles  distant.  I  believe  only  twelve  miles 
of  it  were  finished.  It  was  a  calamity  for  Persia  that  the 
Renter  concession  could  not  be  carried  out,  for  by  this  time 
Persia  would  have  had  its  territory  bisected  with  railways,  and 
its  resources  developed.  On  the  Shah  Abdul  Azim  road  an 
accident  occurred  in  1888,  shortly  after  the  railway  was  opened. 
A  Mohammedan  got  on  the  train  without  a  ticket.  Instead 
of  paying  his  fare  he  jumped  off  and  was  killed.  A  crowd, 
headed  by  a  moUa,  and  incensed  that  this  foreign  machine 
should  kill  a  Mohammedan,  attacked  the  engineer  and  fatally 
wounded  him.  In  his  dying  struggles  he  drew  his  revolver  and 
shot  the  molla.  The  mob  destroyed  the  engine  and  part  of 
the  track.  The  foreign  ministers  laid  claim  for  damages.  The 
road  had  been  built  by  a  Belgium  company,  and  the  engineer 
was  a  Russian.  Damages  were  fixed  at  one  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  dollars,  with  an  allowance  for  the  expenses 
of  the  road  during  the  time  it  remained  idle ;  and  a  pension  of 
twelve  hundred  dollars  a  year  was  granted  to  the  widow  of  the 
engineer. 

There  is  a  tramway  in  the  city  of  Teheran,  and  a  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  of  carriage-road  branch  out  from  the  capital, 
while  a  few  hundred  carriages  have  been  imported  by  the 
nobility.  The  mining  of  coal  at  Teheran,  the  use  of  Russian 
petroleum  throughout  the  country,  and  gas  and  electric  light 
in  the  public  squares  of  the  capital,  are  all  signs  of  progress. 
Knowledge  also  has  advanced — knowledge  of  medicine,  of 
geography,  and  of  the  world  at  large — while  photography  and 
dentistry  are  prosecuted  as  successful  arts  in  the  large  cities. 
Mechanical  arts,  including  working  in  wood  and  iron,  have 
also  developed.  The  standard  of  education  has  been  raised  by 
the  founding  of  the  royal  college  at  Teheran,  and  other  ad- 
vanced schools  in  Tabriz  and  Ispahan.  A  ministry  of  the 
press  has  been  established  since  the  shah's  last  visit  to  Europe. 


178  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

Several  newspapers  are  published  in  the  capital.  The  "  Iran  " 
is  the  official  organ  of  the  government ;  the  "  Scherif  "  is  illus- 
trated with  pictures  of  prominent  officials  in  Persia  and  in 
Europe.  Other  papers  are  the  "  Itila,"  "  Tarhenk,"  and 
"  Teheran,"  devoted  to  politics  and  literattu-e.  In  Tabriz  sev- 
eral attempts  have  been  made  to  found  a  Persian  paper.  In 
1878  the  "  Ruznama-i-Tabriz  "  was  started,  and  subscriptions 
paid  up.  Only  four  numbers,  however,  were  issued,  for  the 
Vali  Ahd  suppressed  it,  saying  that  he  did  not  want  all  the 
bad  things  that  were  happening  pubhshed.  Another  paper  in 
1 88 1  had  a  brief  existence.  Still  another,  called  the  "  Naziri," 
was  founded  in  1 894.  For  fifty  years  the  "  Rays  of  Light  "  has 
been  published  by  the  American  Mission  at  Urumia  in  modem 
Syriac.  The  "  Shavig,"  in  Armenian,  was  established  in  1894 
in  Teheran. 

Another  encouraging  fact  is  the  growth  of  population  in 
Persia  in  the  last  fifty  years.  In  nearly  every  community  care- 
ful inquiry  establishes  the  fact  of  an  extension  of  the  popula- 
tion. Teheran  in  1800  had  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants;  now 
it  is  reported  to  have  two  hundred  and  ten  thousand.  Tabriz 
has  also  increased  in  population.  Drs.  Smith  and  Dwight  re- 
ported it  in  1832  as  containing  sixty  thousand  inhabitants,  with 
sixty  or  seventy  families  of  Armenians.  Sir  Ker  Porter,  in 
tracing  the  limits  of  the  inhabited  city,  says  that  the  ruins  ex- 
tended three  miles  to  the  northeast  and  two  miles  to  the  south- 
west of  the  Kala.  The  places  described  as  ruins  are  now  oc- 
cupied by  dwellings.  The  city  is  estimated  to  have  a  present 
population  of  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  to  one 
hundred  and  eighty  thousand. 

Having  shown  that  Persia  has  made  some  progress  of  late 
years,  and  that  its  backward  condition  is  not  due  to  an  adverse 
climate,  to  sterility  of  soil,  lack  of  natural  resources,  exhaus- 
tion of  race-vitality,  intellectual  feebleness  in  its  people,  nor 
to  incapacity  in  its  rulers,  let  me  point  out  some  things  which 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  179 

Persia  needs  to  make  its  progress  more  rapid  and  to  amelio- 
rate its  condition. 

One  urgent  need  is  the  development  of  internal  improve- 
ments. The  country  must  be  thoroughly  irrigated.  Occasion- 
ally a  summer  cloud-burst  will  cause  a  flood  to  pour  through 
the  village  streets  and  into  the  yards,  carrying  off  the  sheep 
and  throwing  down  the  walls.  Elsewhere,  save  in  the  Caspian 
Sea  basin,  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient  in  most  districts  between 
the  middle  of  June  and  the  end  of  September.  Reservoirs 
must  be  built  to  retain  the  spring  freshets  for  summer  use. 
Artesian  wells  should  be  bored.  What  has  been  done  in  Cali- 
fornia and  in  Colorado,  by  the  French  in  Algeria,  by  the 
English  in  Egypt,  and  by  the  Russians  in  the  Transcaspian 
province,  the  Persian  government  must  do  in  its  own  territory. 
Thousands  of  square  miles  could  thus  be  redeemed  for  cultiva- 
tion. Nor  would  the  expense  be  beyond  the  power  of  the 
government,  and  would  soon  be  covered  by  the  sale  of  the  re- 
deemed lands.  A  change  of  land-tenure  would  also  be  bene- 
ficial, by  which  the  ryots  or  peasants  would  be  enabled  to  buy 
the  village  lands  from  the  landlords,  subdivide  them,  and  pay 
the  taxes  directly  to  the  government.  Improvement  in  agricul- 
tural implements  is  greatly  needed.  The  plow  of  the  days  of 
Xerxes  no  longer  suffices.  Wagon-roads  and  railroads  must  be 
encouraged,  even  by  the  granting  of  subsidies,  if  necessary.  A 
great  mistake  is  made  in  compelling  capital,  whether  foreign 
or  native,  to  fee  numerous  officials  for  the  privilege  of  initiat- 
ing new  enterprises.  Concessions  should  be  given,  with  a  sub- 
sidy and  land  grant,  as  in  our  great  West,  in  the  northwest 
of  Canada,  and  in  other  countries,  rather  than  that  decades 
should  pass  with  the  country  undeveloped. 

Again,  the  development  of  Persia  depends  upon  certain 
political  reforms  being  accomplished.  Official  corruption  is 
universally  prevalent.  Governors,  judges,  and  minor  officials 
now  must  give  presents  to  obtain  their  appointments  and  to 


180  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

retain  their  posts  year  by  year.  They  have  no  fixed  salaries, 
and  consequently  Uve  by  fees  from  litigants  and  even  criminals, 
and  otherwise  reimburse  themselves.  The  expenses  of  gov- 
ernors are  greatly  increased  by  custom.  Their  establishments 
must  be  on  a  grand  scale  and  at  their  own  expense.  A  great 
retinue  and  large  stables  are  needed  to  maintain  the  custom- 
ary pomp.  They  must  provide  lavish  entertainment  daily  for 
many  persons.  The  Amir-il-Askar,  a  governor  of  Tabriz,  once 
said  to  a  petitioner,  "  If  your  business  is  about  the  army,  go  to 
such  a  one ;  if  about  the  taxes,  go  to  such  another  one,"  etc., 
naming  all  the  departments ;  "  but  if  you  want  a  breakfast  I 
am  at  yoiu"  service.  Entertaining  is  my  business."  Legitimate 
fees  are  not  enough  to  enable  such  a  host  of  officers  to  keep 
up  large  establishments.  The  result  is  great  corruption  and 
bribery,  and  the  sale  of  justice  to  the  highest  bidder.  There 
should  be  fewer  officials,  and  they  should  be  paid  such  salaries 
as  to  make  them  independent  of  bribery  and  peculation.  The 
Amir-i-Nizam,  Hussein  Ali  Khan,  by  concentrating  much  power 
in  his  own  hands,  was  enabled  to  maintain  the  customary  dig- 
nity, and  at  the  same  time  befriend  the  poor.  At  a  time  when 
the  bakers  combined  to  increase  the  price  of  bread  he  sum- 
moned them  and  imposed  fines  upon  them.  When  their  sup- 
ply of  wheat  was  scanty  he  opened  his  own  granaries  and  sold 
at  a  low  price,  that  all  the  people  might  have  cheap  bread. 
He  also  summoned  the  grain  merchants  and  landlords,  and 
asked,  "  Why  have  you  made  a  corner  in  the  people's  bread  ?  " 
They  repHed,  "  We  have  no  grain."  He  said,  "  AVill  you  put 
your  seal  to  a  paper  certifying  that  you  have  none  ?  "  They 
were  afraid  to  do  so,  lest  when  their  grain  was  found  it  would 
be  confiscated,  so  they  concluded  to  sell  to  the  people  at  a 
lower  price. 

The  number  of  nobles,  with  the  title  of  khan,  holding  an 
office  or  drawing  a  pension,  or  expecting  one,  is  legion.  Some 
of  these  belong  to  the  landed  aristocracy ;  a  few  have  earned 


THE  CONDITION  AND   NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  181 

their  titles  by  meritorious  service ;  the  remainder  have  no  just 
claim,  and  have  bought  their  titles  and  pensions.  Caste  does 
not  exist  in  Persia.  Men  can  readily  change  their  social  status. 
A  ballet-dancer  was  the  favorite  wife  of  Fath  Ali  Shah.  The 
son  of  a  fellah  may  be  vizier  to-morrow.  Hadji  Baba,  the 
water-carrier,  in  Morier's  inimitable  story,  became  minister  to 
England.  Lowly  birth  is  not  a  bar  to  the  highest  position. 
Filthy  lucre  can  purchase  any  title  of  nobihty.  An  adventurer 
presenting  a  rifle  to  a  prince  is  dubbed  khan.  A  carpenter, 
tailor,  or  photographer  is  paid  for  his  services  with  a  title.  It 
costs  only  a  few  cents'  worth  of  paper  and  a  half-hour's  writ- 
ing. The  transaction  is  still  more  profitable  for  the  officials  if 
one  hundred  tomans  are  paid  by  an  applicant  for  the  additional 
honor  of  a  rank  in  the  army.  The  rank  and  title  bring  no  sal- 
ary or  pension  to  the  recipient ;  these  must  come  as  the  result 
of  another  bargain.  The  titled  nobles  long  since  outnumbered 
the  salaries,  and  a  host  of  hungry  applicants  are  awaiting  the 
first  vacancy.  When  the  incumbent  dies  the  heir  must  give  a 
large  sum  to  procure  the  continuance  of  the  title  and  salary. 
This  usually  amounts  to  one  year's  salary.  If  this  largess  is 
not  forthcoming  the  post  is  given  to  the  highest  bidder  among 
the  hungry  expectants.  Even  then  there  is  many  a  slip  be- 
tween the  cup  and  the  lip.  A  certain  khan  was  informed  that 
a  salary  could  be  obtained.  He  sent  his  present  to  the  capital, 
and  received  an  elaborate  firman  entitling  him  to  the  salary. 
On  presenting  it  to  the  revenue  officer  he  was  informed  that 
the  heir  had  already  obtained  it.  Vain  efforts  were  made  for 
another  vacancy.  He  then  asked  for  the  return  of  his  money, 
but  was  informed  that  it  had  been  spent  in  procuring  the  fir- 
man— in  other  words,  it  had  been  distributed  among  the  offi- 
cials ;  he  would  be  remembered  the  next  time,  in  Sha  Allah.* 

*  A  title  of  some  kind  is  more  necessary  in  Persia  because  of  the  lack 
of  a  family  name.  Even  Ibn  or  Ben  ("  son  of  ")  is  not  much  used.  Some 
are  familiarly  called  "  uncle  "  or  "  brother  "  ;  others  are  distinguished  by 


182  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

If  this  purchase  of  salaries  and  titles  were  confined  to  irre- 
sponsible sinecures  it  would  be  bad  enough  ;  but  rank  and  pro- 
motion in  the  army  are  auctioned  off  in  the  same  way.  A 
young  fellow,  the  son  of  a  mirza  or  scribe,  burglarized  his 
father's  cash-drawer,  ran  off  to  Teheran,  and  came  back  in  a 
few  months  as  a  sultan  or  captain  *  in  the  ordnance  department, 
about  which  he  knew  nothing.  Civil  officers,  if  the  whim  so 
seizes  them,  make  an  adequate  payment  and  are  forthwith 
dubbed  colonel  or  general  in  the  army,  liable  for  duty  at  any 
moment.  Having  secured  the  position  by  pelf,  they  proceed 
to  reimburse  themselves  by  mudakhil  from  the  rank  and  file. 
The  money  devoted  to  the  army  is  not  allowed  to  reach  its 
destination ;  the  soldiers  are  poorly  paid,  and  the  ordnance 
and  commissariat  unprepared.  Apropos  of  this  is  a  conun- 
drum which  a  soldier  asked  of  a  prince :  "  What  is  it  that  has 
a  name,  but  no  existence  ?  "  The  prince  gave  it  up.  "  My 
wages,"  said  the  soldier.  In  1826,  in  preparation  for  the 
Russians,  fifty  thousand  tomans  had  been  devoted  to  the  re- 
furnishing of  the  arsenal.  When  war  came  few  bullets  were  to 
be  found,  and  these  were  not  suitable  for  the  guns,  and  even 
the  city  of  Tabriz  could  not  supply  lead  for  the  purpose.  The 
army  is  recruited  from  the  villages  and  the  wandering  tribes. 
Certain  districts  are  obliged  to  furnish  and  support  a  certain 
number  of  soldiers,  and  the  tribes,  in  case  of  war,  are  called 

their  trade  or  occupation,  as  Saraf,  banker ;  Farash,  policeman ;  Ustad, 
master  mechanic ;  others,  still,  by  their  religious  office,  as  Sheik,  Molla, 
or  by  their  pilgrimage,  as  Hadji,  Meshedi.  The  official  world  has  an  in- 
finity of  titles  conferred  by  the  shah,  indicating  some  relation  to  the 
government,  by  the  use  of  the  words  Doulah,  Mulk,  and  Sultanah,  as  the 
Eye  of  the  Government,  the  Guide  or  the  Righteousness  of  the  State,  the 
Faithful  of  the  Sultan.  Physicians  receive  their  titles  such  as  the  Sword, 
the  Confidence,  the  Fidelity  of  the  Physicians. 

*  The  Persians,  as  if  in  ridicule  of  the  Osmanlis,  name  every  captain  a 
sultan  ;  while  the  Turks  retaliate  liy  calling  every  general  a  pasha  or  pad- 
ishah,  the  title  of  the  king  of  Persia. 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  183 

upon  for  a  contingent.  The  officers  of  the  army  have  adopted 
the  Austrian  uniform,  with  its  short  coat.*  I  had  a  good  op- 
portunity of  seeing  the  action  of  the  Persian  army  shortly  after 
the  Kurdish  raid.  Ten  thousand  troops  were  reviewed  near 
Tabriz,  and  took  part  in  a  sham  battle.  Their  tents  were 
pitched  near  the  "  Prince's  Garden,"  and  the  battle-scene  was 
on  the  plain  beyond.  The  sadr-um-mulk  or  agent  of  foreign 
affairs  had  prepared  a  large  tent  on  a  hillside.  It  was  richly 
curtained,  and  carpeted  with  fine  rugs,  and  furnished  with  chairs 
and  a  table  covered  with  refreshments.  The  consuls  had  been 
invited  to  be  present  and  to  bring  their  friends.  Mr.  Abbott, 
the  British  consul,  extended  to  us  the  coiu-tesy  of  an  invitation. 
For  a  while  we  watched  with  a  glass  the  throng  of  people. 
They  covered  the  plain  and  surrounding  hills,  prepared  for  a 
grand  tamesha  (show).  Their  number  was  estimated  at  thirty 
thousand.  Squatted  on  the  ground,  they  presented  a  patch- 
work of  many  colors.  Their  holiday  coats  of  blue,  green, 
yellow,  and  white  decorated  the  hillsides.  Richly  caparisoned 
horses  added  to  the  scene.  Their  saddle-cloths  were  fine  rugs 
or  embroidered  broadcloths.  Some  were  wrought  with  silk  and 
gold,  and  bordered  with  gilt  fringes  and  tassels.  No  tables  in 
America  are  more  richly  covered  than  were  these  steeds  of  the 
nobility  of  Persia.  Their  heads,  too,  were  adorned  with  silver 
bands  and  jewels ;  one  horse  had  a  neck-band  of  solid  gold,  set 
with  turquoises.  The  general  excelled  all,  in  that  his  belt  of 
gold  was  set  with  pearls  and  diamonds. 

The  uniform  of  the  common  soldier  is  a  navy-blue  cotton 
cloth,  with  red  stripes.     The  cavalry  horses  had  crimson  cloth 

*  Indeed,  the  whole  official  class,  following  the  shah,  have  discarded 
the  old-style  long  robes,  and  are  dressed  in  coats  and  pantaloons,  very 
much  after  the  European  style.  Greater  fullness  in  the  skirt  of  the  coat 
is  the  only  marked  difference ;  this  is  better  adapted  to  their  method  of 
sitting  on  the  floor.  When  Fath  Ali  Shah  cultivated  a  long  beard,  the 
official  class  followed  him  in  that  style.  Since  the  present  shah  has  con- 
fined himself  to  a  mustache,  most  of  the  nobles  have  done  likewise. 


184  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

on  their  breasts,  and  their  tails  were  dyed  crimson.  The 
manoeuvers  need  not  be  told  in  detail.  The  enemy  was  lying 
on  an  adjoining  hill,  with  picket-lines  out.  The  opposing  corps 
attacked  them.  After  sufficient  shamming  and  much  noise 
of  battle,  a  double-quick  charge  was  made,  and  the  enemy's 
position  captured.  The  soldiers  and  the  band  (trained  in 
European  style)  struck  up  a  song  of  triumph  and  marched 
back  to  their  tents. 

The  Persian  army  numbers,  nominally,  one  hundred  and  five 
thousand  men ;  the  actual  standing  army  is  twenty-four  thou- 
sand five  hundred.  The  soldiers  are  fine  material.  They  are 
hardy,  able  to  endure  long  marches,  hve  on  poor  food,  and 
suffer  much  privation.  General  W.  von  Wagner  and  other 
foreigners  who  have  drilled  them  speak  in  high  praise  of  them  ; 
but  efforts  for  their  discipline  are  rendered  futile  by  the  dis- 
honesty of  their  officers.  Until  there  is  a  reform  of  dishonest 
methods  Persia  cannot  hope  for  true  prosperity,  either  in  its 
army  or  in  its  civil  service. 

Again,  Persia  would  be  highly  benefited  by  a  codification  of 
the  civil  law,  with  a  definite  code  of  punishments.  Too  much 
is  left  to  the  caprice  or  humor  of  the  hakim,  who  is  both  gov- 
ernor and  judge.  According  to  his  state  of  digestion,  the  de- 
cision may  be  death  or  release.  The  most  common  punish- 
ment is  a  fine.  Even  murder  is  compounded  for  blood-money, 
with  the  consent  of  the  victim's  friends.  A  life  is  valued  at  as 
low  as  fifty  dollars.  Imprisonment  is  not  for  fixed  times.  The 
prisons  are  foul  and  damp.  The  dungeons  are  full  of  insects 
and  vermin.  The  threat  of  putting  a  prisoner  in  the  dungeon 
is  often  used  to  extort  money.  The  prisoners  are  not  sepa- 
rated, and  often  engage  in  vile  and  abominable  practices.  If 
friends  bring  food,  tobacco,  etc.,  the  jailer  shares  the  benefit 
of  what  is  brought  them.  Otherwise,  occasionally  only,  bread 
and  water  are  provided  for  the  prisoners.  A  common  punish- 
ment is  the  bastinado.     The  feet  are  fixed  in  a  board,  raised 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  185 

in  the  air,  and  beaten  until  so  many  "  sticks  "  are  broken  on 
them.  The  lex  talionis — an  eye  for  an  eye,  etc. — is  sometimes 
enforced.  Amputation  of  the  hand,  hamstringing,  decapita- 
tion, shooting,  pulling  hmb  from  limb,  are  in  use.  In  Maragha 
the  governor  had  the  right  hands  of  some  thieves  cut  off,  and 
the  noses  of  some  drunkards  bored.  The  chief  of  police  put 
ropes  through  their  noses,  held  aloft  their  amputated  hands, 
and  led  the  men  through  the  bazaar,  as  a  warning  to  evil- 
doers. Aziz  Khan  walled  up  fourteen  robbers,  two  of  them  with 
their  heads  downward,  and  left  them  to  perish.  Some  looties 
had  been  pursuing  a  system  of  blackmail,  sending  word  to  cer- 
tain persons  that  if  they  did  not  give  certain  sums  of  money 
they  would  be  murdered.  The  rogues  were  finally  captured 
and  imprisoned  in  Urumia.  After  being  tortured  for  some 
days  they  were  taken  to  the  gate  of  the  city,  where  a  hole  was 
dug,  into  which  they  were  placed  alive,  two  head  downward  and 
the  other  head  upward ;  then  lime-mortar  was  poured  around 
their  bodies,  the  head  of  one  and  the  feet  of  the  others  being 
left  above-ground,  as  a  warning  to  others.  When  a  Kurd  was 
buried  alive,  head  down,  in  the  medan  at  Maragha,  I  asked 
the  reason  for  it.  A  bystander  said  to  me,  "  So  that  his  spirit 
may  not  get  out."  The  celebrated  missionary,  Raymond  Lull, 
was  put  to  death  in  Algeria  in  this  manner. 

In  Tabriz,  in  1887,  a  robber-chief,  who  had  been  fined  sev- 
eral times  to  the  amount  of  ten  thousand  tomans,  and  did  not 
cease  his  crimes,  was  again  captured  and  blown  from  the 
mouth  of  a  cannon.  His  scattered  fragments  could  be  seen 
in  the  court-yard  of  the  governor's  palace. 

The  Babis  were  regarded  as  heretics.  One  of  their  apostles 
was  sentenced  to  death  by  a  mujtehid.  First  his  ears  were  cut 
off ;  then  he  was  struck  a  blow  with  an  axe  on  the  head,  caus- 
ing death.  His  head  was  then  severed  from  his  body,  and  an 
order  given  that  the  corpse  be  burned.  This  not  being  done, 
it  was  cut  in  pieces  and  scattered  about  in  a  field.     On  one 


186  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

occasion  the  tables  were  turned,  when  the  Babis  captured  a 
Persian  leader  who  had  pretended  to  be  a  Babi.  They  first 
skinned  him  alive  and  then  roasted  him. 

Punishments  are  often  inflicted  publicly  to  deter  from  crime. 
I  have  seen  the  headless  trunk  of  a  criminal  lying  before  the 
gaze  of  all  in  the  public  square.  Some  notorious  robbers  were 
killed  in  the  gardens  of  Tabriz  after  a  skirmish  with  the  police. 
Their  bodies  were  brought  to  the  square  and  strung  up  before 
the  eyes  of  the  people,  and  fired  at  as  targets. 

Torture,  including  the  bastinado  and  even  worse  penalties,  is 
resorted  to  to  compel  confession  of  crime.  I  have  heard  of  one 
governor  ordering  a  lighted  candle  to  be  held  under  the  beard, 
burning  it  and  scorching  the  chin  ;  of  another  who  ordered 
the  flesh  to  be  pierced  with  holes  and  lighted  candles  inserted. 
These  punishments  are  inflicted  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
the  shah  has  issued  a  firman  prohibiting  the  torture  of  criminals. 

The  shah  has  modified  some  other  customs  for  the  better. 
The  fall  of  a  prime  min'ster  was,  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent reign,  a  prelude  to  his  speedy  execution ;  but  a  more  en- 
lightened policy  has  since  prevailed,  and  a  vizier  may  now 
hope  to  retire  and  retain  his  head.  The  title  of  sadr-azam  or 
grand  vizier  was  revived  January  27,  1893,  and  given  to  the 
Amin-i-Sultan,  Mirza  AH  Askar  Khan. 

Another  great  need  to  insure  the  country's  prosperity  is  a 
defining  of  the  powers  of  the  civil  and  religious  authorities, 
securing  harmony  between  the  state  and  the  hierarchy,  that 
they  may  unitedly  promote  the  higher  civilization  of  Persia. 
Now  they  are  semi-independent  and  often  antagonistic.  The 
moUas  and  kadis  (gazis)  interpret  and  administer  the  canon 
law  (Shari),  including  the  Koran  and  traditions,  as  explained 
in  another  chapter.  The  civil  ofiicers  administer  the  Urf,  or 
civil  law,  the  will  of  the  king.  Conflict  of  jurisdiction  is  com- 
mon. Persia  is  sometimes  called  an  absolute  monarchy.  It 
might  as  properly  be  called  a  limited  monarchy.    It  has  not  a 


THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS   OF  PERSIA  187 

constitution  in  the  European  sense ;  but  it  has  the  canon  law 
and  constitutions  as  found  in  the  Koran  and  written  traditions, 
which  are  accepted  devoutly  by  the  mass  of  the  people,  and 
enforced  by  the  mollas  and  mujtehids,  under  control  of  the 
chief  mujtehid  at  Kerbela  in  Turkey,  who  lives  beyond  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  shah.  The  priesthood  in  Persia,  as  for  the 
most  part  in  all  countries,  are  intensely  conservative.  Projects 
for  the  improvement  of  the  country  have  to  run  the  gauntlet 
of  their  opposition,  and  are  often  baulked.  Some  priests  have 
the  erroneous  idea  that  European  commercial  enterprises  are 
in  some  way  aimed  at  their  rehgion.  They  are  not  convinced 
that  a  good  net  profit  is  all  that  European  capital  cares  for, 
and  that  it  is  indifferent  to  religious  questions.  If  the  priest- 
hood could  be  restricted,  or  rather  if  they  were  willing  to  con- 
fine their  operations  to  the  sphere  of  religion  and  morality,  the 
government  of  Persia  would  make  more  rapid  progress. 

Another  need  in  Persia  is  of  popular  education.  Mr.  Curzon 
expresses  the  opinion  reiteratedly  that  the  regeneration  and 
civihzation  of  Persia  lie  in  the  school.  I  had  been  led  by  the 
accounts  of  some  travelers  to  expect  to  find  schools  universal, 
and  primary  education  the  heritage  of  all  males.  There  are 
many  schools  which  give  a  conventional  training  in  the  three 
R's;  but  in  the  cities  readers  are  in  the  minority,  and  in 
many  villages  only  two  or  three  men  can  read,  while  a  woman 
who  can  read  is  very  rare.  The  schools  are  in  the  mosques, 
and  the  molla  is  the  teacher.  He  seems  to  require  every  child 
to  make  as  much  noise  as  possible,  under  pain  of  a  rap  if  for 
a  moment  he  ceases  to  add  to  the  general  hubbub.  Persian 
and  Arabic  are  the  languages  taught.  The  Koran  is  read 
more  often  with  the  eye  than  with  the  understanding.  Some 
familiarity  with  the  Persian  poets  is  acquired.  Though  defi- 
cient in  school  education,  the  upper  classes  are  intelligent  and 
quite  well  informed.  It  is  sometimes  surprising  to  find  how 
much  information  in  science,  history,  and  the  world's  doings 


188  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

they  have  obtained  without  instruction  or  much  reading.  With 
ampler  opportunities  they  would  make  rapid  progress.  They 
have  the  desire  for  education,  and  would  gladly  crowd  the  mis- 
sion schools  did  the  government  permit.  The  crown  prince 
has  a  school  in  Tabriz,  with  sixty  scholars  gathered  from  the 
best  families  of  the  city.  Many  of  the  students  are  prepar- 
ing for  public  service,  and  are  supported  by  the  government. 
Persian,  Arabic,  French,  and  Russian,  with  the  elements  of  the 
sciences,  are  taught.  The  school  is  in  charge  of  the  nadim- 
bashi  or  "chief  of  conversationaHsts."  The  medical  depart- 
ment has  several  professors,  who  have  graduated  at  Teheran 
under  European  instructors.  Dr.  W.  S.  Vanneman,  the  Ameri- 
can missionary,  was  asked  to  give  medical  instruction  in  this 
school,  but  his  other  duties  did  not  permit.  The  graduates 
in  medicine  are  for  the  most  part  given  appointments  in  the 
army.  Others  enter  the  civil  service.  The  diplomas  are  issued 
in  the  form  of  medals  of  brass,  silver,  and  gold,  according  to 
the  degree.  Worthy  graduates  also  receive  the  title  of  khan. 
Above  all,  Persia  needs  a  moral  transformation  and  an  intel- 
lectual stimulus  through  those  influences  of  Christianity  which 
have  made  European  and  American  civilizations  so  progres- 
sive and  beneficent. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  SACRED  YEAR  OF  THE  SHIAHS 

AMONG  the  Persians,  as  among  all  Mohammedans,  time 
-  is  reckoned  by  the  lunar  year.  The  twelve  months  of 
alternately  twenty-nine  and  thirty  days  make  three  hundred  and 
fifty-four  days — a  difference  of  eleven  or,  in  leap  years,  twelve 
days  from  the  solar  year.  On  this  account  all  the  fasts  and 
feasts  and  anniversaries  rotate  through  the  different  seasons. 
The  only  exception  is  the  festival  of  the  New  Year  or  Noruz, 
which,  being  fixed  at  the  vernal  equinox,  falls  on  a  different 
date  in  each  succeeding  year.  A  child  born  on  Noruz  will 
not  have  a  birthday  anniversary  within  a  week  of  that  festival 
until  he  is  thirty-two  years  of  age. 

Before  the  time  of  Mohammed  the  Arabs  intercalated  a 
thirteenth  month  every  third  year,  thus  making  the  calendar 
approximately  correct.  Mohammed,  however,  declared  that 
it  was  recorded  on  the  eternal  tablets,  ordained  by  Allah,  that 
the  lunar  year  should  never  have  more  than  twelve  months. 
The  Persians  use  Arabic  names  for  the  months,  and  reckon 
the  era  from  the  Hejira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca, 
A.D.  622.  The  notable  fasts  and  feasts  of  the  Shiahs,*  with 
the  exception  of  some  established  by  Mohammed,  are  in  com- 
memoration of  the  twelve  imams.  The  sacred  year  opens  with 
a  season  of  mourning  for  the  Imam  Husain.  Ali  had  been 
murdered,  Hasan  poisoned,  and  Husain  was  on  the  way  to  Kufa 
to  receive  the  caliphate,  when  he  was  intercepted  by  order  of 

*  See  the  calendar  of  the  Persian  Year,  in  the  Appendix. 
i8q 


190  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

Yezid,  his  rival,  and  cut  down  on  the  plains  of  Kerbela,  to- 
gether with  many  of  his  family  and  over  seventy  of  his  follow- 
ers. Shamr  led  the  last  onslaught.  The  Shiahs,  rejecting  all 
other  caliphs  except  Imam  Ali  and  his  descendants,  yearly  com- 
memorate the  martyrdom  of  Husain  with  many  and  varied 
ceremonies,  which  are  adapted  to  excite  anew  their  fanaticism. 

Some  say  that  the  Caliph  Mothi,  son  of  Mukhtadir,  set  aside 
ten  days  for  general  mourning  over  the  fate  of  Husain.  Others 
say  that  the  celebration  was  estabhshed  a.h.  261  (a.d.  874)  by 
Muaz-ud-Doulah,  vizier  of  the  Dilami  princes.  The  "  Tazia  " 
or  passion-play  represents  the  story,  and  is  enacted  with  great 
elaboration  in  the  takia  at  Teheran,  and  throughout  the  coun- 
try. This  play,  of  which  a  translation  has  been  published  in 
English,  dates  from  the  tenth  century. 

In  Tabriz  a  court  of  the  dewan-khana  is  covered  with  canvas, 
tiers  of  seats  are  erected,  the  sections  are  adorned  with  car- 
pets, curtains,  and  lamps  by  the  officials  and  wealthy  men,  and 
crowds  throng  to  witness  the  scenes,  which  are  enacted  vividly 
and  with  lifelike  reality. 

The  Vali  Ahd  defrays  the  expenses  of  the  actors,  amounting 
to  fifteen  hundred  tomans.  The  actors  come  from  villages 
near  Kasvin,  whose  inhabitants  have  for  generations  made  the 
acting  of  the  passion-play  a  profession.  After  the  "  Tazia  " 
each  nobleman  sends  a  present  of  a  shawl,  sweetmeats,  and 
gold  coins  to  the  prince,  as  a  contribution  to  the  celebration. 

During  the  month  many  of  them  clothe  themselves  in  black, 
especially  those  who  bear  the  name  of  Husain.  Throughout 
the  city,  on  the  streets,  carpets  are  spread,  and  men  and  women 
seat  themselves.  A  molla  or  marseyakhan  tells  with  pathos 
and  art  the  tragic  tales  of  the  martyrs,  till  the  people  begin  to 
lament  and  wail.  Weeping  for  the  death  of  friends  is  not  in 
accord  with  true  resignation,  but  tears  for  the  mart3TS  have 
great  merit ;  so  bereaved  ones,  easily  moved  by  the  affecting 
stories,  shed  meritorious  tears.    Over  certain  doors  black  flags 


THE  SACRED    YEAR   OF  THE  SHIAHS  191 

are  placed  as  signs  that  services  of  mourning  are  being  held 
there.  By  such  services  the  people  become  wrought  up  to  an 
intense  pitch  of  excitement.  The  first  manifestation  of  this 
feeling  observable  by  foreigners  is  seen  in  the  boys'  playing 
"  procession."  Grasping  one  another's  girdles,  they  form  lines, 
waving  sticks  in  the  air,  one  blowing  a  trumpet,  another  beat- 
ing a  drum,  and  all  shouting,  "  Shah  Husain!  Hasan,  Husain!  " 
This  is  a  childish  imitation  of  the  more  serious  acts  of  the  men. 
A  frequent  exhibition  during  the  early  days  of  the  month  is 
a  procession  of  men  and  women  marching  in  irregular  mass 
through  streets  and  bazaars.  First  come  men  bearing  the 
national  banners  and  religious  emblems,  then  bands  of  boys 
chanting  the  mournful  tale  of  Husain's  death,  followed  by  a 
man  clashing  cymbals.  The  latter  is  a  leader  of  a  squad  of 
men,  barefooted  and  naked  to  the  waist.  The  bands  are 
divided  into  sections,  and  have  a  series  of  cries  and  responses : 
"  Shah  Husain,"  "  Vy  Husain  " ;  "  AH,"  "  Help  "  ;  "  Imam," 
"  Martyr,"  etc.  The  cries  are  mingled  wildly,  and  repeated 
again  and  again  as  the  procession  moves  on.  A  few  stanzas 
will  show  the  nature  of  their  songs : 

' '  Kerbela  this  day  has  been  despoiled. 
Husain  with  his  own  blood  is  soiled. 

Chorus.     "  Murder!      By  the  hand  of  Shamr. 
Cry  out!      By  the  hand  of  Shamr. 

"  O  shameless  Shamr!  not  at  all  abashed, 

Ruthless  against  Husain  you  dashed.      Chorus. 

"  Surely  the  stones  shall  weep  to-day! 

Seventy  and  two  were  slain  to-day!      Chorus. 

"  Hasan,  Husain,  where  like  a  flower. 
Yezid  fell  in  the  filth  of  a  sewer."     Chorus. 

Some  of  these  bands  have  large  chains,  some  cat-o'-nine-tails 
of  iron,  or  straps  tipped  with  steel,  with  which  they  lacerate 


192  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

their  backs.  Others  have  large  clubs,  while  many  pound  them- 
selves with  their  fists  until  their  breasts  and  backs  are  black 
and  blue.  Lastly  comes  a  band  of  women,  weeping  and  wail- 
ing, in  the  rear  of  the  company  of  mourners. 

Another  scene,  a  type  of  many,  comes  into  view  before  the 
dewan-khana  or  city  hall,  where  a  man  is  seen  gashing  him- 
self wildly  with  an  awl.  A  prince  presents  the  devotee  with  a 
Cashmere  shawl,  thereby  transferring  the  merit  to  himself — an 
example  of  the  way  the  rich  vicariously  spend  thousands  dur- 
ing this  period  of  lamentation. 

These  and  similar  scenes  greet  the  eye  until  the  9th  of  the 
month,  when  the  bazaars  are  closed,  business  is  suspended,  and 
the  people  prepare  for  the  sorrowful  anniversary.  That  night 
is  the  time  for  the  old  and  the  prominent  men  to  manifest  their 
grief.  They  repair  to  the  mosques,  with  a  large  supply  of 
candles  for  illumination.  They  anoint  their  heads,  faces,  and 
beards  with  black,  filthy  ointment,  and  make  bare  their  feet  and 
breasts.  A  molla  takes  the  lead,  staff  in  hand,  and  in  irregu- 
lar procession  they  begin  a  night-long  lament.  With  singing 
of  dirges  and  frantic  intonations  of  the  words  "Shah  Husain!  " 
they  follow  the  molla,  who  by  his  cry,  "Well  done!"  encour- 
ages them.  Now  and  then  he  calls  a  halt,  and  all  beat  their 
breasts  with  cruel  vigor.  A  man  sometimes  passes  around  with 
a  sponge  or  a  piece  of  cotton,  wipes  off  their  tears,  and  presses 
them  into  a  bottle,  where  they  are  kept  as  a  remedy  for  disease 
and  as  a  charm  against  evil  influences.  The  ancients  buried 
these  tear-bottles  in  tombs  as  a  proof  of  their  affection.  Some 
Mussulmans  say  that  an  angel  collects  these  tears  and  keeps 
them  till  the  day  of  judgment  as  a  witness  of  the  weeper's  re- 
spect for  the  memory  of  Husain. 

The  dawn  of  the  morning  of  the  i  oth  ( Ashura)  is  the  signal 
for  the  young  men  to  begin  their  part.  By  this  time  frenzy  has 
been  so  wrought  up  that  they  are  ready  for  the  most  inhuman 
and  devilish  work.     They  assemble  at  various  mosques  in  dif- 


THE  SACRED    YEAR.   OF   THE  SHIAHS  193 

ferent  wards  of  the  city.  Those  desirous  of  acquiring  special 
merit,  or  who  have  been  hired  by  the  rich  to  acquire  it  for 
them,  and  those  who  are  under  vows,  whether  rich  or  poor, 
are  clothed  in  long  white  robes  reaching  to  the  ground.  The 
robes  are  consecrated  for  the  occasion,  and  afterward  are  given 
to  the  poor.  Robed  in  these,  and  with  their  heads  shaven, 
they  are  ready  for  the  bloody  sacrifice.  Men  with  knives  and 
swords  cut  the  crowns  of  the  human  victims.  The  blood  flows 
down  in  profusion  over  their  white  garments ;  wild  excitement 
takes  hold  of  them ;  swords  are  placed  in  their  hands ;  they 
start  in  procession  through  the  streets,  flashing  their  swords  in 
the  air,  gashing  their  heads,  and  raising  the  now  wild  and 
frenzied  cry,  "Shah  Husain!  Hasan,  Husain!  " 

Each  division  marches  to  the  headquarters  of  the  alderman 
of  its  ward.  As  the  large  court  of  the  kala-begi  is  in  full  view 
from  the  roof  of  the  English  consulate,  we  accepted  an  invita- 
tion there  to  see  the  climax  of  the  celebration.  The  surround- 
ing roofs  were  covered  with  eager  crowds,  and  the  center  of 
the  court-yard  was  filled  with  women.  Soon  the  sound  of 
music  became  audible  amid  the  din,  and  the  procession  came 
in  sight.  First  came  a  company  with  waving  banners,  some 
with  tukhs  (steel  plumes  capped  by  balls),  others  with  mirrors, 
others  still  with  the  national  symbols  of  the  Lion  and  the  Sun. 
One  carried  a  tulug  or  leather  water-bottle,  and  others  raised 
aloft  metallic  hands,  representing  Abbas ;  for  when  Husain  had 
gone  on  that  fatal  day  to  the  Euphrates  for  water,  his  bottle 
was  pierced  with  an  arrow  and  the  water  spilled.  His  enemies 
surrounded  him  and  cut  off  his  hands.  He  put  his  sword  into 
his  mouth  and,  rushing  at  them,  killed  a  number  in  this  way. 
Next  came  a  richly  caparisoned,  riderless  horse,  eloquent  of  the 
fallen  Husain  ;  on  another  horse  two  white  doves  were  perched, 
representing  the  plumed  messengers  who,  dipping  their  wings 
in  the  blood  of  the  slain,  carried  the  sad  news  to  the  sacred 
cities.    Next  followed  a  mounted  company  of  children  strapped 


194  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

to  the  horses,  their  heads  bleeding  and  their  garments  red  from 
the  cruel  sword-cuts.  The  mother  who  vowed  to  devote  her 
child  to  the  holy  imam  watches  him  from  the  throng  with 
eager  solicitude,  yet  with  pious  gratitude,  thinking  that  now 
he  is  sure  of  a  blessing.  It  was  touching  to  see  the  helpless 
babies  so  abused.  Strange  carefulness  was  that  of  the  men 
who  gently  stroked  their  infant  heads  with  the  sharp  swords. 
Either  loss  of  blood  had  exhausted  them  or  excitement  over- 
awed them,  for  they  neither  uttered  a  cry  nor  gave  indication 
of  alarm. 

Following  these  was  a  martial  band,  heading  a  bloody  corps, 
threescore  strong,  one  of  a  hundred  such  corps  in  the  city.  On 
they  came,  with  a  swaying,  half-sidewise  gait.  There  were 
not  only  men,  but  boys  of  twelve  and  upward.  Each  with 
one  hand  grasped  the  belt  or  supported  the  elbow  of  the  one 
in  front,  while  with  the  other  hand  he  brandished  a  bloody 
sword,  now  and  then  bringing  it  down  upon  his  own  pate. 
The  spectacle  was  horrible  and  disgusting.  Their  scalps  were 
haggled  and  mangled  in  irregular  gashes ;  the  crowns  of  their 
heads  were  weltering  in  gore.  The  blood  poured  down  on  their 
faces,  dyed  with  crimson  their  white  robes,  and  made  them  a 
sight  revolting  and  sickening,  while  the  unceasing,  monotonous 
cry  of  "Shah  Husain!  Hasan,  Husain! "  like  the  shouts  of  the 
prophets  of  Baal,  deafened  the  air.  We  almost  felt  as  brutal 
as  the  participators  to  be  gazing  at  the  spectacle,  much  as  the 
Roman  dames  must  have  felt,  or  ought  to  have  felt,  when  clap- 
ping their  hands  as  the  gladiator  bit  the  dust  in  the  arena. 

On  they  filed  into  the  court-yard,  to  exhibit  themselves  be- 
fore the  officials.  At  this  juncture  we  noticed  that  men  were 
keeping  pace  behind  the  devotees  with  long  sticks,  to  ward 
off  the  blows  which  might  inflict  mortal  injury.  From  one 
fanatic  they  were  trying  to  take  his  sword.  Some  were  bind- 
ing up  the  wounds  of  the  exhausted.  Little  boys  were  led 
away  bleeding.     Plenteous  drafts  of  sugar-water  were  pressed 


THE  S/1CRED    YEAR   OF   THE  SHMHS  195 

to  their  mouths.  Some  were  already  too  much  exhausted,  and 
sank  out  of  hne.  Others  fainted  away  and  fell  senseless.  Some 
were  fatally  wounded,  though  the  definite  number  of  the  fallen 
was  not  known.  Those  who  die  are  believed  to  go  straight 
to  Paradise. 

So  the  bloody  corps  passed  from  view,  to  be  succeeded  by 
a  corps  beating  themselves  with  clubs,  their  children  covered 
with  chaff  and  ashes,  representing  Zainab  and  the  children 
taken  captive  to  Syria ;  then  a  group  with  castanets ;  and 
again  a  chain-gang,  lashing  themselves  as  on  previous  days, 
only  intensified  by  the  present  furor,  until  other  blood-dyed 
robes  and  swords  flashing  in  the  sunlight  dazed  our  eyes.  So 
it  continued  until  noon.  The  same  scenes  were  being  enacted 
not  only  in  that  ward,  but  in  all  the  twenty-four  wards  of  the 
city,  and  with  an  intensified  brutality  when  the  corps  from  all 
the  wards  met  at  the  dewan-khana  before  the  mayor.  Some- 
times, as  they  met  in  the  narrow  streets,  sword  clashed  sword, 
and  a  deadly  struggle  ensued.  But  precaution  was  taken  to 
avoid  this.  One  company  went  to  the  Vali  Ahd  and  pro- 
cured the  release  of  several  prisoners.  When  the  thousands  of 
blood-stained  devotees,  with  numerous  trains  of  others,  had 
passed  in  review,  the  divisions  disbanded. 

Then  the  men  took  a  free  bath  at  the  hammams,  and  were 
treated  to  food  and  tea.  In  the  afternoon  no  one  took  a  siesta, 
because  Shamr,  after  murdering  Husain,  went  home  and  slept 
quietly.  In  the  evening  lamps  were  not  Hghted,  because  the 
captive  children  were  confined  in  a  dark  room.  On  the  nth 
of  the  month  a  procession  of  camels  in  the  bazaars,  with  chil- 
dren in  cajavahs  or  baskets,  was  led  about,  indicating  the  jour- 
ney of  the  captives  to  Syria.  For  several  days  afterward  the 
bazaars  were  closed. 

It  is  fair  to  say  that  many  mujtehids  and  mollas  of  the  Shiahs 
condemn  this  wild  and  bloody  celebration  as  a  gross  viola- 
tion of  the  Koran,  and  regard  it  as  an  injurious  exxrescence, 


196  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

a  disgrace  to  Islam.  Its  origin  is  traced  to  the  Karabaghlis 
of  Transcaucasia,  and  thence  it  has  spread  through  Persia. 
Many  of  its  objectionable  features  have  been  added  in  recent 
years.  The  Amir-i- Nizam,  the  first  and  greatest  prime  minis- 
ter of  Nazir-i-Din  Shah,  endeavored  to  repress  the  orgy,  but 
found  the  fanaticism  of  the  people  too  much  for  him. 

After  Muharram  the  next  six  months  contain  frequent  fes- 
tivals and  days  of  mourning.  Business  is  much  interrupted. 
Days  of  mourning  commemorate  the  deaths  of  the  imams, 
their  feasts,  their  births,  etc.,  though  Yezid's  death  is  a  time 
of  rejoicing.  The  birthdays  of  Mohammed,  Ali,  and  Husain 
are  specially  celebrated.  They  are  ushered  in  with  displays  of 
fireworks,  and  the  bazaars  are  closed.  Salaams  or  receptions 
are  held  by  the  shah,  the  crown  prince,  and  other  dignitaries. 
On  All's  birthday,  as  well  as  on  the  evening  before,  guns  are 
fired  off,  and  the  bazaars  are  illuminated  at  night. 

The  15th  of  Shaban  (the  eighth  month)  is  a  great  national 
festival — the  Fourth  of  July,  so  to  speak,  for  the  Persians  the 
day  of  the  greatest  rejoicing.  Two  causes  are  assigned  for  the 
festivities :  one  the  birth  of  the  Imam  Mahdi,  the  twelfth  and 
last  imam,  who  still  lives  in  concealment ;  the  other  the  wed- 
ding of  Ali  and  Fatima,  the  daughter  of  Mohammed.  Fatima, 
it  is  said,  had  many  suitors,  though  Mohammed  declared  that 
he  on  whose  house  a  shooting  star  should  fall  would  receive 
his  daughter.  All's  house  was  hit  by  the  lucky  star.  For 
what  event  could  pyrotechnics  be  more  appropriate  ! 

The  government  appropriates  two  thousand  tomans  a  year 
for  fireworks.  The  people,  too,  buy  them.  Everybody  car- 
ries home  a  bundle  of  sky-rockets  and  Roman  candles  or  fire- 
wheels.  This  is  done  not  only  for  amusement,  but  as  a  merit 
for  their  souls.  Omission  to  do  so  is  a  sin.  If  one  has  only 
enough  money  for  bread,  let  him  forego  the  bread  and  shoot 
the  money  into  the  sky!  Better  still  is  it  to  combine  the 
pyrotechnics  with  a  feast.     On  the  evening  of  this  festival  the 


THE  SACRED    YEAR   OF   THE  SHIAHS  197 

whole  population,  including  Christians,  go  on  the  flat  roofs 
and  watch  the  fiery  trains  on  every  side  darting  through  the 
sky. 

Two  weeks  after  this  the  great  fast  of  Ramadan  begins. 
This  fast  was  probably  copied  after  Lent,  The  Mosaic  law 
had  but  one  day  of  fasting — the  day  of  Atonement,  Maz- 
deism,  in  the  fourth  Vendidad,  taught  that,  "  of  two  men,  he 
who  fills  himself  with  meat  is  filled  with  the  good  spirit  much 
more  than  he  who  does  not  do  so.  It  is  this  man  who  can 
strive  against  the  fiends."  An  unfounded  tradition  states 
that  the  Ramadan  fast  was  only  intended  to  be  for  three 
days,  and  that  the  knowledge  of  which  three  days  was  lost, 
and  therefore  the  whole  month  must  be  kept.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  new  moon  is  watched  for  carefully,  and  news  of 
its  rise  is  telegraphed  from  city  to  city  in  cloudy  weather.  The 
fact  of  its  appearing  is  made  known  to  all  by  the  firing  of 
cannon,  and  morning  and  evening  throughout  the  month  the 
same  signal  is  given.  The  fast  must  begin  at  early  dawn,  as 
soon  as  a  white  thread  can  be  distinguished  from  a  black  one, 
and  continue  until  the  dusk  of  the  evening  will  not  allow  the 
difference  to  be  discerned.  In  1886  the  fast  fell  in  June,  and 
the  morning  gun  was  discharged  at  2.45  a.m.,  and  the  evening 
one  at  7.45  p.m.  A  Mohammedan  near  the  arctic  zone  would 
long  for  darkness  to  interrupt  his  fast.  The  Eskimo,  with 
three  months  of  daylight,  would  find  obedience  to  this  com- 
mand impossible.  Abstinence  from  all  food,  from  smoking 
tobacco,  from  drinking  water,  and  from  all  sensual  indulgence 
is  required.  All  persons  must  keep  the  fast  except  the  sick, 
travelers,  and  children  under  thirteen  years  of  age,  on  peril 
to  their  souls  and  bodies  as  well.  Sick  persons  and  trav- 
elers are  enjoined  to  render  an  equivalent  afterward.  To 
prepare  for  the  day  the  whole  population  rise  while  it  is  yet 
dark  and  eat  a  hearty  meal.  On  one  day  in  1894,  either  by 
mistake  or  as  a  practical  joke,  the  cannon  was  fired  two  hours 


198  PERSIAN  LIFE  ^ND   CUSTOMS 

and  a  half  before  the  time.  Men  and  women  started  from 
their  beds  and  rushed  out  to  inquire  concerning  the  time,  in 
great  perplexity,  not  daring  to  eat  their  morning  meal.  When 
they  learned  that  the  fault  was  not  in  their  watches,  nor  in 
their  having  overslept,  but  with  the  gunner,  they  demanded 
his  punishment,  and  he  sought  the  sanctuary  of  a  mosque. 
Toward  evening  food  is  made  ready,  and  as  soon  as  the  can- 
non  is  fired  a  shout  goes  up  all  over  the  city  from  thousands  of 
throats,  and  the  hungry  people  fall  upon  their  food.  In  sum- 
mer months,  with  days  sixteen  hours  long,  it  is  a  very  trying 
ordeal,  especially  for  the  poor.  The  laborer,  with  tongue  and 
lips  parched,  stomach  craving,  and  hands  weak,  does  a  sorry 
day's  work,  and  excites  one's  compassion  and  indignation. 
Many  of  the  rich  make  the  task  a  lighter  one.  Night  is  turned 
into  day,  and  day  into  night.  They  feast  on  the  best  viands 
of  all  the  year,  smoke  and  enjoy  themselves  during  the  night, 
go  to  bed  at  the  first  streak  of  dawn,  rise  at  noon,  go  to  the 
mosque  for  prayers,  promenade  the  bazaars,  ride  and  chat  in 
comparative  comfort  until  the  evening  meal.  Business  is  largely 
suspended.  Bankers  and  merchants  open  their  doors  only  for 
a  few  hours  in  the  afternoon.  Pressing  government  business 
is  often  engaged  in  at  night.  If  it  be  asked  whether  the 
people  keep  the  fast,  I  believe  the  answer  must  be  that  on 
the  whole  they  do.  Doubtless  a  considerable  number  eat  in 
secret ;  some,  indeed,  say  that  more  than  half  do  so.  They  are, 
however,  wary  not  to  be  caught.  In  1891  two  men  were  dis- 
covered in  the  act  of  eating.  They  were  nailed  by  the  ear  to 
a  wall  and  spit  upon  by  the  passers-by.  An  Armenian  villager, 
dressed  like  a  Mohammedan,  was  dragged  before  the  mayor 
on  the  charge  of  breaking  the  fast,  and  was  not  released  until 
proof  was  furnished  that  he  was  a  Christian. 

The  object  of  the  fast  is  to  subdue  the  flesh  and  lead  to  re- 
pentance. An  expiatory  efficacy  is  attached  to  it  in  the  popu- 
lar mind.     Often  its  effect  is  to  increase  anger,  profanity,  and 


THE  SACRED    YEAR   OF   THE  SHIAHS  199 

strife.  Animals  and  men  are  more  reviled  and  beaten  in  this 
than  in  any  other  month.  The  multitude  attend  the  mosque 
with  great  regularity,  and  read  the  Koran,  even  though  they 
do  not  understand  Arabic.  The  Koran  is  for  this  purpose 
divided  into  thirty  portions,  one  for  each  day.  Each  is  named 
from  the  first  word  of  the  portion.  In  the  shops  and  on  the 
streets  men  may  be  seen  busily  engaged  reading  it.  It  must 
be  read  in  a  particular  manner,  with  definite  tones,  accents, 
and  pauses.  To  finish  reading  the  whole  in  three  days  is  very 
meritorious.  Prescribed  prayers  and  purifications  must  be 
made  before  reading.  Tradition  says  that  whosoever  teaches 
his  son  to  read  the  Koran  will  receive  a  heavenly  crown,  and 
whosoever  reads  only  one  letter  does  a  good  act,  which  will 
meet  a  tenfold  reward. 

Other  circumstances  add  much  to  the  solemnity  of  the  fast 
among  the  Shiahs.  The  birth  of  the  Imams  Hasan  and 
Mohammed  Tagi,  on  the  15th  of  the  month,  makes  that  day 
memorable.  The  death  of  Fatima,  on  the  2d,  and  the  martyr- 
dom of  Imam  Reza,  on  the  24th,  and,  above  all,  the  assassina- 
tion of  Ah,  move  their  hearts.  Ibn  Mulzam,  the  Kharijite 
conspirator,  smote  Ali  with  a  poisoned  sword  on  the  19th  in 
the  mosque  at  Kufa ;  he  died  on  the  21st  of  the  month.  On 
the  24th  All's  son  smote  Ibn  Mulzam  a  single  stroke,  as  the 
latter  had  done  to  Ah,  and  on  the  27th  he  died.  The  three 
days  that  Ali  lingered  between  life  and  death  are  most  solemn 
ones.  All  work  then  ceases.  The  bazaars  are  so  absolutely 
closed  that  meat  and  vegetables  cannot  be  purchased.  On  the 
night  of  the  19th  none  should  sleep.  Mourning  and  beating 
of  the  breasts  is  kept  up  until  the  23d.  The  day  of  Ibn  Mul- 
zam's  death  is  one  of  rejoicing.  In  Irak  they  eat  sheep's  head 
as  a  sign  of  their  devouring  him. 

In  April,  1893,  the  anniversary  of  Ah's  death  and  the 
Armenian  Easter  fell  on  the  same  day.  It  was  a  perfect 
Sabbath,  but  the  Christians  were  rejoicing  while  the  Moham- 


200  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

medans  were  mourning.  A  story  was  circulated  that  five  hun- 
dred Mohammedans  had  gone  to  the  mujtehid  and  declared 
that  it  was  inappropriate  that  the  Armenians  should  be  feasting 
while  they  were  sorrowful.  Would  he  not  give  permission  to  go 
and  loot  their  houses  ?  The  mujtehid  is  said  to  have  repHed, 
"  The  Christians  here  are  but  few,  while  their  co-religionists  in 
Russia  and  India  are  as  the  sand.  If  we  hurt  the  Christians 
here  they  may  retaliate  in  those  countries." 

The  fast  is  succeeded  by  the  Fitr,  or  OniJ  Bairam,  on  the 
I  St  of  Shavval.  Then  the  shah  and  governors  again  hold 
salaam.  There  is  much  feasting,  and  especially  eating  of 
dates.  Mourners  visit  the  graves  of  the  dead,  and  are  visited 
by  their  friends.  Duty  requires  every  one  to  distribute  to  the 
poor  both  money  and  food,  and  for  every  member  of  his  family 
five  eighths  of  a  batman  of  wheat. 

The  next  important  day  is  the  Kurbafi  Bairam,  the  Festival 
of  Sacrifice,  on  the  loth  of  Zil  Haja.  This  festival  was  insti- 
tuted in  imitation  of  the  great  day  of  Atonement,  on  the  loth 
of  the  seventh  Hebrew  month.  During  the  first  years  of  the 
Hejira,  Mohammed  at  Medina,  in  order  to  conciHate  the  Jews, 
kept  the  day  of  Atonement.  Afterward  he  modified  it,  sacri- 
ficing two  rams,  one  for  himself  and  his  family  and  one  for 
his  tribe.  It  is  now  connected  with  Abraham's  offering  of  Ish- 
mael,  not  Isaac.  The  Shiahs  on  the  same  day  commemorate 
the  departure  of  Husain  from  Medina  on  his  journey  to  Ker- 
bela.  The  victim  which  may  be  sacrificed  on  Kurban  Bairam 
is  a  camel,  cow,  sheep,  goat,  or  buffalo.  The  idea  in  it  seems 
to  be  commemoration,  consecration,  and  thanksgiving,  but  not 
expiation.  In  Tabriz  the  usual  sacrifice  for  the  people  is  a 
sheep.  The  crown  prince  devotes  a  camel  to  be  sacrificed, 
and  whosoever  takes  the  head  to  his  Highness  receives  a  re- 
ward.    This  is  sometimes  the  occasion  of  popular  strife. 

The  remainder  of  the  month  is  filled  with  memorable  anni- 
versaries, fitted  to  excite  the  people  for  the  Muharram  that 


THE  SACRED    YEAR   OF   THE  SHIAHS  201 

follows.  There  are  the  festival  commemorating  Mohammed's 
declaration  that  Ali  was  to  be  his  successor,  the  Khatam 
Bakhsh,  the  accession  of  Ali  to  the  caliphate,  and,  lastly,  the 
death  of  Omar,  on  the  26th.  The  latter  is  an  occasion  of 
great  joy  and  cursing.  Omar's  pate  is  loaded  with  impreca- 
tions as  the  supplanter  of  Ali.  A  writer  *  describes  a  celebra- 
tion where  a  large  platform  was  erected  and  a  disfigured  and 
deformed  image  placed  upon  it,  to  which  the  crowd  addressed 
all  sorts  of  revilings.  Having  exhausted  their  vocabulary  of 
vituperation,  they  attacked  the  image  with  sticks  and  stones, 
until  they  broke  and  scattered  it  in  pieces.  At  times  an 
Armenian  is  hired  to  impersonate  Omar,  so  that  they  can  cxu^se 
him  to  their  hearts'  content.  Enmity  between  the  Turks  and 
Persians  is  kept  alive  by  these  celebrations.  It  has  even  been 
considered  a  matter  important  enough  to  be  stipulated  in  some 
treaties  that  the  Persians  should  cease  to  curse  Omar.  On  this 
anniversary,  in  September,  1893,  the  Osmanli  consul  at  Tabriz 
was  riding  out  in  a  carriage.  He  was  attacked  by  a  Persian, 
who  shot  one  of  the  horse  ■,  and  then,  taking  a  horse  from  a 
traveler,  galloped  away.  It  was  at  first  thought  to  be  an  act 
of  fanaticism.  Afterward  it  was  explained  that  the  man  had 
had  a  quarrel  with  his  father  and  had  threatened  to  do  something 
that  would  bring  destruction  on  him  and  his  property,  accord- 
ing to  the  practice  in  law  that  a  father  is  liable  to  arrest,  fine, 
and  imprisonment  for  his  son's  misdemeanor,  if  the  latter 
escapes.  This  diplomatic  explanation  at  least  answered  the 
purpose. 

*  "  China  and  Persia,"  vol.  i.,  p.  364. 


CHAPTER    XII 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE    AND    MORALS 


IT  is  not  my  purpose  to  treat  of  the  doctrines  and  beliefs  of 
the  Shiah  Mohammedans,  nor  of  their  history,  nor  of  the 
numerous  sects,  new  and  old,  to  be  met  with  in  the  country. 
The  Shiahs  number  about  fifteen  millions,  eight  millions  of 
whom  hve  in  Persia.  The  Shiahs  or  sectaries  agree  with  the 
Sunnis  or  traditionalists  in  the  main  articles  of  belief.  They 
believe  in  the  existence  and  unity  of  God,  the  revelation  in  the 
Koran,  creation,  fatalistic  providence,  angels — good  and  bad 
— the  prophets,  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  the  judgment, 
heaven,  and  hell.  Their  creed  is,  "  There  is  no  God  but  God ; 
Mohammed  is  the  apostle  of  God ;  Ali  is  the  vicegerent  of 
God."  The  latter  clause  is  not  received  by  the  Sunnis,  who 
hold  different  traditions.  They  claim  that  one  hundred  and 
twenty-four  thousand  prophets  have  spoken  to  man,  and  are 
mediators  between  him  and  God.  Six  of  these  are  superior, 
namely,  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  and  Moham- 
med, the  latter  being  preeminent.  Ali  and  his  descendants, 
through  Fatima,  are  declared  to  be  the  rightful  successors  of 
Mohammed,  the  caliphs  of  Islam.  As  imams  they  have  high 
dignity  and  honor.  Abubekr,  Osman,  and  Omar  Avere  usurpers. 
The  twelfth  and  last  imam  disappeared,  is  yet  alive,  and  will 
reappear  as  the  Mahdi.  Their  religious  rites  are  the  repetition 
of  the  creed,  prayer,  alms,  pilgrimage,  and  fasting.  By  the 
proper  observance  of  these  they  believe  that  they  receive  for- 
giveness of  sins  and  a  title  to  Paradise.    The  ministers  of  their 

202 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  203 

religion  are  called  moUas.  They  are  not  regarded  as  priests  or 
mediators  in  a  ritualistic  sense,  but  are  leaders  in  worship,  in- 
structors, interpreters  of  the  sacred  law  and  its  traditions.  They 
are  not  a  caste,  but  are  drawn  from  all  ranks  of  the  people. 
They  receive  a  course  of  instruction  under  the  chief  mollas  or 
mujtehids,  consisting  of  Persian  and  Arabic,  Mohammedan 
theology,  dialectics,  and  interpretation  of  the  law.  Some  stu- 
dents go  to  Kerbela  for  more  advanced  study.  They  are  called 
taliba,  and  are  often  unruly,  as  students  are  in  other  lands. 
They  have  an  esprit  de  corps  which  makes  it  dangerous  to  incur 
their  enmity.  In  February,  1893,  a  fracas  occurred  between 
some  three  hundred  students  and  the  same  number  of  sayids. 
The  latter  beat  about  fifteen  of  the  former.  Continued  hostili- 
ties were  imminent,  and  the  mujtehid  had  difficulty  in  pacify- 
ing them,  which  he  finally  did  by  sending  a  peace-ofifering  of 
sugar  to  the  sayids.  Two  causes  of  the  trouble  were  reported — 
either  some  students  wished  to  take  meat  from  a  sayid  butcher 
without  paying  for  it,  or  a  sayid  was  drunk  and  the  students 
wished  to  punish  him. 

The  mollas  are  of  various  grades.  Some  teach  the  primary 
schools  in  the  village  and  city  mosques ;  others  are  leaders  of 
prayers ;  while  others  still,  in  various  degrees  of  prominence, 
are  interpreters  of  the  law,  writers  of  contracts,  deeds,  etc.,  and 
judges  of  civil  and  religious  cases  at  law.  They  decide  ac- 
cording to  the  Shari ;  that  is,  the  Koran  and  its  traditions. 
Those  who  attain  eminence  in  their  respective  sects  by  reason 
of  their  learning  or  sanctity  are  honored  with  various  tides, 
such  as  Hujat-il-Islam,  Sigat-ul-Islam,  Sheik-ul-Islam,  and  are 
by  popular  indication,  without  regular  election,  regarded  as 
mujtehids.  There  are  one  or  more  of  these  in  every  city,  but 
the  chief  mujtehid  of  all  resides  at  Kerbela.  The  chief  muj- 
tehid of  Tabriz,  Hadji  Mirza  Javat  Aga,  is  a  man  of  marked 
ability.  When  we  called  on  him  on  one  occasion  he  suggested 
for  our  discussion  the  subject  of  the  proofs  for  the  existence  of 


204  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

God.  He  has  much  weaUh,  and  is  reported  to  own  several 
hundred  villages.  His  influence  and  honor  are  great.  Crimi- 
nals seek  the  protection  of  his  gate  as  a  refuge.  In  1882  the 
governor  demanded  a  refugee.  The  mujtehid  declared  his 
house  an  inviolable  sanctuary,  and  refused  to  deliver  him  up. 
The  governor  appealed  to  the  shah,  and  the  mujtehid  was 
ordered  to  answer  before  his  Majesty.  When  he  made  his  exit 
from  Tabriz  throngs  of  men  and  women  pressed  about  him 
with  tears,  kissing  his  hand  and  receiving  his  blessing.  After 
he  had  made  his  peace  with  the  shah  and  returned,  more  than 
fifteen  hundred  men  went  out  to  meet  him,  some  going  as  far 
as  ten  miles.  Some  men  kissed  his  feet,  others  the  stirrups, 
while  many  animals  were  sacrificed  before  him  in  his  honor. 

The  mollas  are  generally  conservative,  resisting  innovation 
in  state  as  well  as  in  religious  affairs.  They  many  and  keep 
up  establishments  in  style  and  expense,  according  to  their 
ability.  Some  few  mujtehids,  with  a  pretense  of  sanctity,  live 
on  uncarpeted  floors.  Their  favorite  animal  for  riding  is  the 
large  white  donkey.  The  income  of  the  mollas  is  derived  from 
their  fees  for  teaching,  writing  documents,  and  deciding  cases, 
from  the  offerings  and  legacies  of  the  people,  especially  the 
khums  or  fifths,  which  are  devoted  to  religion.  A  molla  may 
engage  in  secular  business.  One  class  of  the  mollas  are  the 
marseyakhans,  reciters  of  the  tales  of  the  martyrs.  They  are 
eloquent  and  effective  speakers.  During  the  revival  services  of 
Muharram  and  Ramadan,  sections  of  the  bazaar  are  marked  off 
and  crowded  with  people  to  hear  their  lamentations.  They 
are  kept  very  busy  going  from  house  to  house  and  mosque  to 
mosque.  They  may  be  seen  hastening  on  quick-pacing  horses 
to  their  next  appointments,  making  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

The  mollas  wear  a  pecuhar  dress.  Their  robes  are  long  and 
flowing,  bound  by  a  large  girdle  in  thick  folds ;  their  cloak  or 
aba  hangs  low ;  their  turban  is  large  and  full.  Girdle,  cloak, 
and  turban  are  often  of  light  colors,  frequently  white.     Their 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  205 

shoes  are  of  the  old  style,  sandal-like,  turned  up  at  the  toes  and 
pointed,  and  with  heavy  heels. 

A  semi-rehgious  order  are  the  sayids,  direct  descendants  of 
Mohammed.  When  we  consider  the  number  of  children  that 
Mohammedans  have,  and  that  descent  through  both  male  and 
female  lines  is  counted,  we  are  not  surprised  that  after  twelve 
hundred  years  there  is  an  immense  multitude  of  them.  But 
there  are  also  many  false  sayids.  An  official  told  me  that 
when  he  was  young  he  had  a  seal  made  with  "  sayid  "  en- 
graved on  it.  Afterward  he  changed  his  mind  and  destroyed 
it.  Had  he  retained  it  his  children  would  have  regarded  them- 
selves as  sayids.  Their  privileges  are  exemption  from  taxes, 
support  from  the  khums  or  fifths,  and  other  alms  of  the  faith- 
ful, and,  if  so  inclined,  the  privilege  of  blackguarding  and 
browbeating  their  brethren  whose  blood  is  not  so  holy.  Many 
of  them  are  wealthy  and  honorable  men  engaged  in  all  avoca- 
tions, but  it  is  a  mistake  to  have  such  a  privileged  order  in  the 
kingdom.  Their  dress  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  mollas, 
except  the  turban,  girdle,  and  sometimes  other  parts  of  the 
costume,  which  are  dark  blue  or  green. 

Another  pecuhar  set  of  men  are  the  dervishes.  They  are 
orders  of  religious  mendicants  of  many  kinds  and  degrees. 
The  ordinary  one  seen  in  Persia  is  a  strolling  story-teller,  with 
long  disheveled  hair,  a  close-fitting  skull-cap,  sometimes  em- 
broidered with  verses  from  the  Koran  or  the  names  of  the 
imams,  and  bound  with  a  fillet  with  hanging  tassels.  His 
girdle  is  a  bundle  of  rough  threads  ;  his  cloak  a  fanciful  patch- 
work, an  embroidered  cloth,  or  the  skin  of  a  beast,  with  its 
hoofs  or  claws  hanging  down.  He  has  for  his  kashgul  or  col- 
lection-box a  large  Indian  nutshell,  curiously  carved,  and  in 
his  hand  a  mace  or  cane.  This  may  be  a  heavy  stick  of  iron, 
a  tomahawk,  or  an  immense  club  of  uncouth  shape  or  with  a 
knob  driven  full  of  spikes.  The  dervishes  have  altogether  a 
very  romantic  appearance.     They  are  generally  good-natured 


206  PERSMN  LIFE  /IND  CUSTOMS 

souls.  They  tell  their  stories  on  the  street  corners  and  in  the 
bazaars,  and  collect  the  pennies ;  they  squat  down  in  a  little 
tent  before  the  gate  of  some  rich  man ;  they  stroll  from  village 
to  village ;  and  wherever  they  are,  their  cry,  "  Ya  hak,  Ya 
hak! "  ("  Oh  truth,  Oh  truth!  ")  is  heard.  They  are  not  highly 
respected,  but  are  in  a  manner  looked  upon  as  holy,  and  never 
ridiculed. 

Having  thus  briefly  indicated  the  doctrines  and  religious 
orders  of  the  Shiahs,  I  proceed  with  some  details  regarding 
their  chief  religious  rites.  A  new  convert  must  first  repeat  the 
creed  :  "  There  is  no  God  but  God  ;  Mohammed  is  the  apostle 
of  God ;  Ali  is  the  vicegerent  of  God."  After  that  he  is  cir- 
cumcised. The  Mohammedan  boy  is  often  circumcised  on  the 
eighth  day.  Sometimes  it  is  delayed  for  some  years.  It  is 
made  the  occasion  of  feasting  and  rejoicing.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  the  youth  must  begin  the  exercise  of  the  rites  of  reli- 
gion. One  of  the  important  rites  is  prayer.  Five  times  a  day 
are  appointed  for  prayer — dawn,  middle  of  the  morning,  noon, 
middle  of  the  afternoon,  and  sunset.  Morning  and  evening 
the  muezzin  mounts  a  minaret  or  the  roof  of  a  mosque,  and 
gives  the  azan  or  call  to  prayer:  "God  is  great!  I  testify 
that  there  is  no  God  but  God  ;  I  testify  that  Mohammed  is 
the  apostle  of  God,  and  Ali  is  the  vicegerent  of  God.  Come 
to  prayer!  Come  to  security!  Prayer  is  better  than  sleep." 
The  muezzin  may  be  an  educated  molla  or  an  ignorant  man. 
A  wealthy  neighbor  had  the  call  given  from  his  housetop  by 
an  illiterate  scavenger  or  porter,  who  had  simply  memorized 
the  Arabic  words,  and  was  paid  for  his  trouble  with  some 
loads  of  wheat.  The  preparations  for  prayer  are  somewhat 
elaborate.  Certain  ablutions  are  preparative.  The  ablutions 
are  performed,  not  by  dipping  the  hands  in  a  basin,  but  by 
pouring  water  from  a  ewer  or  from  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
The  Sunnis  and  Shiahs  wash  the  hands  differently.  One  rubs 
toward  the  elbow,  the  other  downward.     They  can  be  distin- 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  207 

guished  from  each  other  by  the  direction  of  the  hair  on  the 
arm.  The  toes  are  also  carefully  rubbed  with  water,  the  ears 
moistened,  and  the  teeth  cleaned.  A  spot  of  ink,  or  other 
defilement,  may  invalidate  the  prayer.  When  prehminaries 
have  been  finished  the  worshiper  takes  his  position  on  a  prayer- 
rug,  with  head  uncovered  and  shoes  removed,  faces  toward 
the  Kebla,  the  Kaaba  at  Mecca,  and  places  a  tablet  of  pressed 
earth  from  Kerbela  before  him,  and  holds  a  string  of  beads  of 
the  same  earth  in  his  hands.  These  beads  number  ninety-nine, 
according  to  the  attributes  of  God.  A  long  one  at  the  end  is 
called  the  molla  ;  two  double  ones  are  called  the  caliphs.  With 
the  beads  he  keeps  tally  of  his  petitions.  The  tablet  is  placed 
before  him  because  Mohammed  enjoined  that  the  worshipers 
should  bow  their  heads  to  the  earth.  The  prayer  is  said  ac- 
cording to  a  fixed  rote,  every  motion  being  prescribed.  With 
the  repetition  of  certain  words  the  devotee  raises  his  hands  to 
heaven,  with  others  his  eyes ;  at  one  time  he  kneels,  at  another 
prostrates  himself  with  his  forehead  on  the  earth ;  again  he 
touches  his  knees,  toes,  palms  of  the  hands,  and  forehead,  to 
indicate  his  absolute  submission.  He  must  not  look  backward 
during  the  exercise.  He  may,  however,  keep  an  eye  on  those 
round  about  him,  and  on  his  goods  lest  they  be  stolen,  or 
ejaculate  a  curse  on  his  apprentice,  or  tell  a  passing  customer 
to  wait  a  little  while  and  he  will  attend  to  him.  He  may  in- 
terject a  greeting  to  a  guest  or  an  order  for  tea,  provided  he 
proceeds  without  mistake.  The  prayer  consists  of  certain 
suras  of  the  Koran  in  Arabic,  which  are  understood  by  few  in 
Persia,  the  same  words  being  repeated  day  after  day.  A 
translation  of  the  prayer,  with  pictures  of  the  worshiper  in 
each  posture,  can  be  seen  in  Hughes's  "  Dictionary  of  Islam." 
Their  conception  of  prayer  is  that  it  is  the  rendering  of  wor- 
ship or  the  paying  of  a  debt  of  service  to  the  Creator.  It  is 
a  duty  which  the  faithful  are  under  obligation  to  perform.  The 
ideas  of  confession,  petition,  and  intercession  are  not  present 


208  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

to  their  mind.  The  prescribed  prayer  is  called  the  natnaz. 
There  is  also  the  dua^  which  is  more  in  accordance  with  true 
prayer,  being  an  expression  of  their  desires  to  God. 

Persians  have  a  custom  of  saying  frequently,  "  In  sha  Allah  " 
("  If  God  wills  ").  With  some  it  becomes  a  thoughtless  or 
irreverent  interjection,  or  a  vain  repetition  of  the  divine  name. 
A  goodwife  was  in  the  habit  of  saying,  "  In  sha  Allah,"  in  a 
pious  way.  Her  husband  ridiculed  her.  One  day  he  said, 
"  Let  us  have  a  dinner  of  rice  and  mutton."  His  wife  an- 
swered, "  In  sha  Allah."  He  went  and  brought  the  things 
from  the  market  and  gave  them  to  her,  saying,  "  Make  ready 
and  let  us  eat  quickly."  She  answered,  "  In  sha  Allah." 
When  ready  the  wife  said,  "  Let  us  sit  down  and,  in  sha  Allah, 
eat  our  dinner."  The  man  said,  ''  Of  course  we  will ;  why  do 
you  always  say, '  In  sha  Allah  '  ?  "  Just  then  the  police  entered 
and  took  him  to  prison.  ]3eing  released,  he  knocked  at  his 
door.  The  wife  said,  "Who's  there?"  He  answered,  "It  is 
I,  in  sha  Allah." 

All  places  are  regarded  as  suitable  for  prayer.  When  the 
call  sounds  the  man  stands  up  among  his  guests,  or  in  his  shop, 
in  the  midst  of  the  noise  of  manufacturing,  or  on  the  house- 
top, or  on  the  street  corner.  The  workmen  throw  aside  the 
pick  and  shovel  and  begin  their  devotions.  The  gospel  idea 
of  closet  prayer  is  unknown  to  them.  At  first  acquaintance  a 
Christian  is  an  enigma  to  them,  never  being  seen  to  engage 
in  prayer.  A  native,  describing  a  Christian  lady,  said,  "  She 
does  not  revile,  she  does  not  steal  or  lie,  yet  she  has  no  reli- 
gion." 

In  addition  to  the  daily  prayers  there  are  services  in  the 
mosque.  These  are  usually  held  on  Friday  or  Juma,  the  meet- 
ing-day, the  Sabbath  of  Mohammedans.  There  is  a  partial 
cessation  from  work  on  that  day.  Government  offices  and 
some  of  the  bazaars  are  closed,  but  the  mass  of  the  people 
continue  working.     A  considerable  number  assemble  in  the 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  209 

mosques.  The  molla  or  peesh-namaz  leads  the  prayers  and 
repeats  passages  from  the  Koran  in  Arabic.  Sermons  are  not 
infrequently  preached  in  the  vernacular ;  at  times  fervent  and 
eloquent,  at  other  times  deep  and  incomprehensible,  consisting 
of  the  recital  of  traditions,  or  of  exhortations  of  a  practical 
nature. 

No  village  is  without  its  mosque,  no  city  without  a  consid- 
erable number  of  them.  Those  of  the  present  age  are  gener- 
ally rude  structures,  without  architectural  features  worthy  of 
mention.  Some  of  the  ruined  mosques  are  of  great  beauty. 
Some  now  in  use  have  large  and  well-formed  arched  roofs,  and 
hold  large  audiences.  Several  new  mosques  in  Teheran  are 
built  in  elegant  style.  Few  mosques  in  Persia  have  minarets. 
The  furniture  of  the  mosque  is  simple.  The  congregation  sit 
on  the  floor,  which  is  covered  with  a  rough  reed  matting  or 
with  carpets.  Women  sit  apart  and  are  veiled.  Christians  are 
rarely  allowed  to  enter  a  mosque,  their  presence  being  con- 
sidered defiling.  The  ground  consecrated  to  a  mosque  is  for- 
ever sacred,  and  not  to  be  devoted  to  secular  uses.  If  the 
basement  or  first  story  is  reserved,  a  dwelling  can  be  built  on 
the  place  where  a  mosque  has  stood. 

Burial  of  the  dead  takes  place  with  a  prescribed  ritual.  A 
death  in  the  house  is  announced  by  a  molla  from  the  house- 
top, by  repeating  certain  portions  of  the  Koran.  In  the  case  of 
a  great  man  this  is  done  twice,  but  news  is  not  sent  to  distant 
friends.  They  may  remain  for  months  and  even  years  in  igno- 
rance of  the  death  of  a  mother  or  a  child.  No  one  will  be  the 
bearer  or  sender  of  evil  tidings.  The  custom  is  to  bury  very 
quickly.  A  man  who  died  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  was 
buried  before  dark.  Doubtless  many  are  interred  alive.  In  the 
city  of  Maragha  the  body  of  a  woman  had  been  prepared  for 
burial  according  to  custom.  Moistened  cotton  was  placed  in 
the  mouth,  the  nose,  and  the  ears ;  the  body  was  bathed  three 
times,  the  last  time  in  camphor- water ;  the  eyes  were  bandaged  ; 


210  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

the  body  was  wrapped  in  the  kafan  or  shroud,  and  would  have 
been  borne  quickly  to  the  cemetery  had  not  darkness  inter- 
vened. At  dawn  the  body  was  found  to  be  in  a  different 
position,  and  shortly  afterward  the  friends  were  astonished  by 
the  question,  "Why  are  my  eyes  bandaged?  "  Her  bandages 
were  loosed,  she  was  restored  to  health,  and  shortly  afterward 
gave  birth  to  a  child. 

The  injunction  of  the  Koran  to  wash  the  body  under  a 
covered  place  is  not  always  obeyed.  There  are  families  whose 
trade  it  is  to  attend  to  this  last  office  for  the  dead.  Two  sticks 
about  a  foot  long  are  put  under  the  arms  of  the  corpse.  These 
are  to  prop  it  up  when  it  rises  from  the  grave  and  is  catechized 
by  the  angel  Gabriel.  After  he  is  satisfied  that  it  is  the  body 
of  a  true  Mussulman  strength  will  be  given  to  sit  upright. 
Burial  without  these  sticks  is  considered  very  heterodox. 
Some  ignorant  people  are  loath  to  part  with  a  limb,  lest  they 
appear  maimed  at  the  resurrection.  A  certain  Meshedi  put 
his  nail-parings  carefully  away  in  a  paper.  One  day  the  boys 
found  them  and  scattered  them.  He  was  very  angry  and 
dismayed,  and  said,  "  What  now  will  I  do  in  the  resurrection?  " 
In  shaving  the  head  a  tuft  of  the  hair  is  left,  that  by  it  a  Mus- 
sulman may  be  recognized. 

The  friends  assemble  at  the  funeral  with  such  expressions 
as,  "  May  God  be  merciful  to  you/  "  "  M-diy  your  life  be  pro- 
longed ! "  "  Our  life  is  from  God !  "  "  It  is  the  will  of  God ! " 
"It  is  the  act  of  God;  we  must  be  resigned!"  Tea  and 
coffee  are  served,  and  sometimes  pilau  and  other  viands  at 
great  expense.  Hired  mourners  are  in  attendance.  The 
molla  recites  a  dirge,  telling  them  to  weep  not  for  their  friends, 
but  to  weep  for  Husain  and  the  slaughtered  innocents.  The 
tender  hearts  of  the  bereaved  are  easily  moved,  and  their  tears 
and  their  beating  on  their  breasts  are  a  merit  as  being  for  the 
martyrs.  Neither  the  men  nor  the  women  wash  their  faces 
or  comb  their  hair  until  the  first  days  of  mourning  are  over. 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  211 

The  men  open  the  seams  of  their  coats,  as  if  rending  their 
garments,  and  put  dust  on  their  hats.  A  bereaved  woman 
sometimes  tears  her  flesh  with  her  nails,  pulls  out  her  hair, 
uncovers  her  head,  and  sits  in  the  hot  sun  screaming.  The 
length  and  loudness  of  the  wailing  are  supposed  to  indicate 
the  depth  of  the  sorrow.  For  two  weeks  waihng  is  so  loud 
that  the  neighbors  a  block  away  can  hear  it.  The  women, 
her  companions,  sometimes  weep  with  her,  sometimes  scold 
and  upbraid  her,  sometimes  try  to  assure  her  that  the  death  is 
not  a  fact.  The  putting  on  of  the  oldest  clothes  is  a  sign  of 
mourning. 

The  body  is  at  times  covered  with  a  shawl,  at  times  placed 
in  a  coffin.  The  latter  is  rudely  made,  with  black  cloth  nailed 
over  it.  A  child  may  be  borne  on  a  pillow,  others  on  a  bier. 
The  bier  is  carried  by  different  sets  of  bearers,  the  passers-by 
acquiring  merit  by  helping.  Women  do  not  go  to  the  grave. 
The  procession  is  irregular ;  every  one  moves  at  his  own  gait, 
and  as  fast  as  possible.  Riding  is  a  disrespect  to  the  angels 
who  walk  before  the  corpse.  I  once  noticed  a  waiter  with 
hghted  candles  borne  in  front  of  a  Mohammedan  funeral  pro- 
cession. They  said  it  was  simply  to  honor  the  dead.  Prayers 
and  reading  of  the  Koran  are  part  of  the  ceremony  at  the 
grave.  They  are  also  repeated  on  the  eve  of  Friday,  and  on 
special  mourning-days.  On  these  occasions  the  people  and 
mollas  crowd  the  cemeteries  to  pray,  mourn,  and  eat  pilau 
and  taffy.  The  grave  of  a  man  is  dug  three  or  four  feet  deep, 
that  of  a  woman  two  feet  deeper.  The  face  is  placed  toward 
Mecca.  Some  bodies  are  laid  on  the  ground  and  incased  in 
brick,  and  reserved  to  be  removed  to  some  shrine.  Thousands 
of  corpses  are  taken  to  Kerbela  or  Meshed,  to  rise  with  the 
imams.  Such  caravans  are  frequently  met  on  the  highways. 
Dr.  Perkins  tells  of  an  Englishman  traveling,  who  saw  some 
oblong  boxes  in  the  caravansary  and  told  his  servant  to  arrange 
them  and  he  would  spread  his  bed  on  them.     He  might  have 


212  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

spent  the  night  reposing  with  the  dead  had  not  his  nostrils 
aroused  him  to  the  true  state  of  the  case. 

Little  attempt  is  made  to  beautify  graveyards.  They  are 
desolate,  without  tree,  grass,  or  flower.  In  the  midst  of  the 
cities  they  are  trampled  down  by  donkeys  and  men,  and  when 
somewhat  obliterated,  often  opened  again  for  another  inter- 
ment. There  is  occasionally  a  large  monument  or  a  tomb  of 
an  imam-zada  ;  other  graves  are  marked  with  rude  stone  slabs. 
On  these  are  inscriptions  from  the  Koran  or  the  poets,  and 
sometimes  the  name,  age,  and  date  of  death.  Some  have 
signs  of  the  man's  trade,  as  an  anvil  and  hammer,  a  pistol,  or 
a  cup  and  pitcher.  In  old  cemeteries  are  some  immense  blocks 
of  porphyry,  five  or  ten  feet  long  and  a  cubit  in  height  and 
breadth.  They  seem  quite  ancient,  and  no  such  large  stones 
are  now  brought  for  any  purpose.  They  are  often  taken  for 
use  in  bridges  and  tanks.  They  may  belong  to  the  Mongol 
period.  One  in  the  bridge  over  the  Kuri  Chai  is  said  to  have 
an  Armenian  inscription.  Some  old  cemeteries  have  rudely 
carved  rams  or  rams'  heads.  Oil  is  sometimes  poured  out  as 
an  offering  upon  them.  A  Mussulman  told  me  they  were  so 
made  because  Abraham  offered  uj)  a  ram.  That  would  indi- 
cate that  the  dead  are  a  sacrifice  to  God.  Sir  Ker  Porter  dis- 
covered one  at  Old  Julfa,  with  an  Armenian  inscription,  and 
he  thinks  they  are  of  Christian  origin. 

Mohammedans  of  Persia  seem  to  have  great  faith  in  written 
prayers,  either  as  petitions  or  charms.  Many  are  written  and 
put  in  leather  or  cloth  cases,  and  suspended  from  the  neck  or 
tied  to  the  arm  of  a  child  to  protect  it,  or  to  a  horse  to  keep 
it  from  stumbling.  In  cholera  times  printed  prayers  were 
posted  on  the  walls.  Women  will  frequently  desire  to  have  a 
prayer  written  for  barrenness.  Once  I  was  conversing  with  a 
village  soldier,  who  asked  me  if  I  knew  anything  of  science, 
saying  that  he  was  in  love,  but  opposed  by  his  father ;  would 
I  not  write  a  prayer  for  him,  that  his  difficulties  might  be  over- 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  213 

come?  The  desire  for  written  prayers  is  a  source  of  consid- 
erable revenue  to  the  mollas.  In  the  Russo-Turkish  War  the 
mujtehid  of  Kerbela  issued  a  decree  that  the  war  was  a  holy 
one  [j'a/iad).  The  ialiba  or  students  entered  into  the  war.  First 
they  prayed  over  some  pease  and  cast  them  in  the  direction  of 
the  enemy,  indicating  that  they  would  be  driven  out.  When 
the  taliba  were  defeated  they  fled  home,  saying,  "  Self-preser- 
vation is  the  first  law." 

A  remarkable  innovation  has  been  introduced  by  some. 
On  one  occasion  I  was  visiting  the  house  of  a  wealthy  Persian. 
We  entered  a  room,  and  there  was  unveiled  before  me  an 
almost  life-size  picture  of  Ali,  with  his  two  sons,  Hasan  and 
Husain,  seated  on  either  side.  Ah  was  represented  as  crowned 
with  a  halo,  clothed  in  camel's-hair  cloth,  and  having  in  his 
hand  the  double-pointed  sword  which  an  angel  is  supposed  to 
have  brought  from  heaven.  Before  this  picture  they  prostrated 
themselves,  kissing  it  and  paying  it  profound  adoration,  while 
they  mumbled  their  prayers.  This  marks  a  striking  change 
among  Mohammedans.  Mohammed  would  almost  rise  from 
his  grave  to  rebuke  it.  Not  satisfied  with  the  older  represen- 
tation, in  which  the  face  was  veiled,  they  have  made  an  oppor- 
tune discovery  in  a  remote  part  of  India.  This  is  a  portrait 
of  Ali  on  canvas,  showing  his  sacred  features.  By  order  of 
the  shah  this  picture  was  solemnly  conveyed  to  Teheran  and 
received  with  great  honor.  An  order  of  nobility  was  instituted 
in  commemoration  of  the  discovery,  and  the  imperial  sanction 
was  given  to  its  use  in  the  devotions  of  the  faithful. 

By  some,  Ali,  Hasan,  and  Husain  are  regarded  as  the  first 
of  all  creatures,  the  supreme  intercessors,  sinless,  and  endowed 
with  the  divine  light.  Ali  voices  his  power  in  the  thunders ; 
his  gleaming  sword  is  seen  in  the  lightning's  flash.  On  him 
rests  the  hope  of  salvation.  Devotion  to  him  is  the  first  duty 
of  the  believer. 

The  third  meritorious  act,  according  to  the  Mohammedan 


214  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

faith,  is  almsgiving.  There  are  two  kinds — the  zakat,  which  is 
enjoined,  with  directions  as  to  what  portion  of  each  product 
should  be  given;  and  sadakat  or  "righteousness,"  which  is 
voluntary.  The  faithful  are  commanded  to  give  one  fifth  of 
their  income.  The  underlying  idea  is  the  merit  of  the  donor, 
that  he  may  acquire  a  claim  on  God's  mercy.  He  does  not 
give  because  need  or  suffering  appeals  to  him.  It  makes  no 
difference  if  the  beggar  is  an  impostor,  or  will  use  the  alms  in 
wickedness.  God,  it  is  believed,  will  count  it  equally  to  the 
credit  of  the  giver. 

The  usual  forms  of  alms  are  in  support  of  religion,  the  main- 
tenance of  the  sayids,  and  of  the  poor.  Occasionally  a  man 
builds  a  mosque,  a  bridge,  a  free  water-tank,  or  makes  pro- 
vision for  free  ice-water  in  the  bazaar.  Sending  portions  of  a 
feast  to  the  needy  is  common.  While  Islam  enjoins  ample 
charity,  yet  much  of  it  is  wasted  on  professional  beggars,  use- 
less dervishes,  and  lazy  sayids.  Hospitals,  asylums  for  the 
blind,  the  aged,  orphans,  or  lepers,  are  unknown,  and  famine 
calls  forth  little  systematic  beneficence. 

The  professional  beggars  are  frequently  pitiable  spectacles. 
Women  may  often  be  seen  sitting  in  the  street  on  a  winter 
day,  their  teeth  chattering,  and  their  babes  unprotected.  Men 
with  only  a  bit  of  sackcloth  over  their  loins,  and  almost  nude 
boys,  make  appeals.  To  clothe  them  is  useless,  as  they  will 
return  in  their  rags  the  next  day.  Many  are  frauds.  I  once 
saw  a  man  lying  in  the  street  apparently  nearly  dead.  He 
declared  that  fever  was  burning  him  up,  and  cried  for  help. 
I  had  him  carried  to  the  dispensary.  The  doctor  examined 
him  and  found  his  pulse  and  temperature  perfectly  normal. 

It  is  considered  very  meritorious  for  a  Mussulman  to  pay 
the  expense  of  the  burial  of  a  dead  believer.  Two  beggars 
agreed  that  on  alternate  days  each  should  feign  himself  dead, 
and  the  other  collect  alms  for  his  burial.  They  had  remark- 
able skill  in  stiffening  their  limbs  and  bringing  a  deadly  pallor 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  215 

to  their  countenances.  After  many  successful  efforts  they 
were  one  day  informed  that  a  great  man  was  approaching. 
Having  made  all  preparations,  a  piteous  tale  of  distress  was 
poured  into  the  khan's  ears.  He  recognized  the  men,  and 
immediately  agreed  to  bear  all  the  expense  of  the  burial.  He 
ordered  his  attendants  to  dig  a  grave  and  light  a  fire,  that  hot 
water  might  be  prepared  for  washing  the  body.  The  accom- 
plice besought  him  not  to  trouble,  declaring  that  he  had  vowed 
that  he  would  himself  perform  these  last  rites  for  his  friend. 
Unheeding,  they  made  all  the  preparations,  and  only  when  the 
scalding  water  was  falling  on  his  pate  did  the  dead  man  aban- 
don his  ruse.  The  noble  then  gave  the  beggars  a  present  and 
sent  them  away. 

The  Mohammedan  considers  it  a  sin  for  the  least  scrap  of 
bread  to  be  destroyed.  He  will  stoop  and  pick  it  up.  He 
never  wishes  to  cut  down  a  tree  after  it  has  blossomed  in  the 
spring,  because  its  fruit  will  sustain  life. 

Another  religious  observance  of  prime  importance  is  fasting 
This  is  considered  under  Ramadan,  in  the  chapter  on  the 
Sacred  Year.  The  pilgrimage  remains  to  be  described.  A 
pilgrimage  or  hadj  to  Mecca  is  obligatory  on  every  Moham- 
medan once  in  his  lifetime.  Only  poverty,  sickness,  or  un- 
sound mind  can  be  a  ground  of  excuse  from  this  duty.  The 
Shiahs  have  multiplied  their  places  of  pilgrimage.  Some  of 
them,  by  good  policy,  fall  within  the  borders  of  Persia.  These 
are  Meshed,  the  tomb  of  the  Imam  Reza,  and  Koum,  the 
tomb  of  Fatima.  Even  more  important  than  these  are  Meshed 
AH,  at  Nejef,  and  Kerbela.  The  journey  to  these  shrines  from 
most  parts  of  Persia  is  long  and  difficult.  The  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  can  be  made  more  easily  by  way  of  Tiflis,  the  Black 
Sea,  and  Suez,  and  to  Meshed  by  the  Caspian  steamers  and 
Transcaspian  Railway,  and  the  new  wagon-road  to  Meshed. 
The  idea  underlying  these  pilgrimages  in  the  minds  of  the 
people  is  the  obtaining  of  forgiveness  and  merit  by  the  hard- 


216  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

ship  and  expense  they  entail,  by  doing  honor  to  the  sacred 
persons  and  places,  and  by  performing  the  rites  prescribed. 
Men  who  have  made  unlawful  gain  have  a  strong  conviction 
that  it  will  become  lawful  to  them  by  undertaking  a  pilgrim- 
age. There  is  a  rule,  however,  that  the  pilgrimage  is  not 
effective  unless  a  man  has  settled  up  all  legal  claims  against 
him.  Hence  a  servant  about  to  start  will  come  to  his  master, 
whom  he  probably  has  robbed,  and  say,  "  Aga,  if  I  have 
oifended  you,  if  I  have  caused  you  loss,  forgive  me,  make  it 
hallal"  (or  lawful).  If  the  master  says,  "No  matter,  it  is 
well!  "  the  account  is  squared.  A  rich  man  will  make  a  show 
of  settHng  all  his  old  accounts  or  extortions,  that  he  may  ap- 
pear before  God  clean.  When  a  prominent  official  was  going 
on  the  hadj  to  Mecca  he  caused  it  to  be  announced  in  the 
mosque  before  hundreds  of  people  that  he  wished  every  one 
who  had  a  charge  against  him,  or  from  whom  he  had  taken 
unlawfully,  to  come  and  he  would  pay  it.  The  people  said 
this  promise  must  be  a  lie,  as  he  had  taken  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  tomans.  There  was  an  Armenian  who  had  a  bill  for 
purchases  against  the  nobleman.  He  went  to  his  palace  and 
waited  for  three  hours.  After  trying  various  methods  of  get- 
ting the  money  he  finally  said  to  the  official,  "  Now,  your  Honor 
is  going  to  appear  before  God,  and  what  will  you  answer  if 

you  are  asked,  '  Have  you  paid  Baron  A his  money?  '    It 

will  be  unlawful  for  you  to  go  on  my  money.  I  do  not  make 
your  journey  hallaiy  With  this  artifice  he  obtained  the  settle- 
ment of  his  account. 

People  at  times  go  on  a  pilgrimage  from  motives  not  reli- 
gious. Childless  women  go  with  their  petition,  or  invalids  hop- 
ing to  be  healed,  being  tied  for  some  days  in  the  portico  of 
the  shrine.  Men  often  go  for  the  opportunity  of  seeing  the 
world,  or  to  get  out  of  the  country  for  a  time.  Others  com- 
bine trading  in  merchandise  with  the  pilgrimage. 

The  pilgrims  start  so  as  to  reach  Mecca  in  the  month  of 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  217 

Zil  Haja,  for  the  Kurban  Bairam.  They  gather  from  a  dis- 
trict, to  the  number  of  several  hundred,  a  well  mounted  and 
outfitted  caravan.  Each  one  passes  one  end  of  his  turban  or 
scarf  beneath  his  chin,  and  takes  in  his  hand  a  staif  of  bitter 
almond.  As  the  bands  go  out  of  the  city,  with  songs  and 
music  and  flying  banners,  their  friends  accompany  them  for  a 
distance.  Shopkeepers  and  passers-by  come  up  to  them,  kiss 
their  hands,  and  receive  their  peace,  wishing  them  a  safe  jour- 
ney. Others  sacrifice  sheep  before  the  caravan,  while  the  pil- 
grims distribute  safety-money  to  the  beggars.  Rich  men  go 
with  great  pomp  and  display.  A  Tabriz  merchant  made  the 
pilgrimage  with  two  wives,  four  children,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  servants,  and  one  hundred  extra  pack-animals.  His  en- 
campment, when  he  pitched  his  tents  for  the  night,  looked  hke 
a  small  town.  Such  a  man  must  also  distribute  a  large  amount 
of  food  to  the  poor  each  night,  so  that  his  expenses  are  very 
heavy.  When  the  pilgrim  returns  from  Mecca  he  is  known 
by  the  honorable  title  of  Hadji,  or  from  the  other  shrines  by  a 
title  derived  from  the  place,  as  Kerbelai  or  Meshedi.  If  he 
dies  on  the  joiu-ney  his  spirit  goes  directly  to  Paradise ;  if  he 
dies  at  the  shrine  he  is  still  more  blessed,  for  his  body  will 
rise  with  the  prophets  and  imams  on  the  day  of  resurrection. 

It  is  considered  meritorious  for  a  man  of  means  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  a  poor  man  on  the  pilgrimage.  The  shah  at  times 
provides  for  indigent  mollas  a  purse  for  this  purpose.  I  have 
heard  that  one  day  a  molla  came  to  the  shah  for  a  present  of 
one  hundred  tomans  for  the  hadj.  An  oflficial  who  dishked 
mollas  asked  him  why  he  came  there  drunk.  The  molla  pro- 
tested that  he  was  not  drunk.  The  official  affirmed  that  it  was 
proved  by  the  fact  that  his  pockets  were  full  of  stones.  This 
the  molla  denied.  The  official  immediately  proved  to  the  shah 
(by  sleight  of  hand)  that  the  pockets  were  full  of  stones,  and 
the  molla  was  sent  away  in  disgrace. 

Besides  these  great  shrines  there  are  hundreds  of  small  ones, 


218  PERSUN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

scattered  all  over  Persia.  Some  of  them  are  tombs  of  the 
imam-zadas,  or  descendants  of  the  imams ;  some  of  them  are 
the  scenes  of  supposed  miracles,  some  of  them  the  inventions 
of  crafty  priests.  A  shrine  in  Karadagh,  which  was  visited 
much  for  the  healing  of  the  sick,  originated  in  the  following 
manner:  One  morning  a  man  told  his  neighbors  that  during 
the  night  a  heavenly  light — a  manifestation  of  an  imam — had 
appeared  on  a  certain  hill.  The  report  spread,  and  people  be- 
gan flocking  to  the  shrine.  It  was  a  time  of  an  overstocked 
melon  market,  and  the  bazaar  was  distant.  The  story  brought 
a  throng  of  purchasers  near,  and  the  man  sold  his  melons  at 
a  good  profit.  Then  he  told  the  people  of  his  deceit,  but 
they  declared  his  confession  a  lie  and  held  to  the  fable  as 
truth. 

Just  outside  of  Urumia  a  shrine  has  been  built.  A  sayid 
dreamed  that  an  imam  appeared  to  him,  informing  him  that 
gold  was  hidden  in  a  cemetery  to  be  used  for  his  honor.  Sev- 
eral nights  afterward  the  man  dreamed  the  exact  place,  and 
with  the  supposed  find  built  a  shrine.  The  interest  on  the 
investment  came  to  him  speedily,  as  one  whom  the  imam  hon- 
ored with  a  vision. 

The  belief  in  dreams  and  visions  of  the  Prophet  or  the  imams 
is  wide-spread.  It  is  sometimes  turned  to  good  account.  A 
pasha  in  Turkey  had  built  a  mosque,  but  had  borrowed  eight 
hundred  tomans  for  the  purpose  from  an  Armenian.  The  debt 
remained  unpaid.  Finally  the  Armenian  gave  thirty  tomans  to 
a  friend  of  the  pasha  to  persuade  him  to  pay  it.  One  morn- 
ing the  friend  came  before  the  pasha  much  agitated,  saying 
he  had  had  a  vision  in  the  night.  An  old  man  with  flowing 
robes,  long  white  beard,  and  bald  head  had  appeared  to  him 
and  asked,  "Who  built  this  mosque?  "  He  answered,  "The 
noble  Azat  Pasha."  "Why,"  said  the  old  man,  "have  you 
so  long  allowed  the  Armenians  to  own  part  of  it  ?  If  you 
don't  pay  them  quickly  I  will  smite  the  ground  with  my  staff, 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  219 

and  the  mosque  will  tumble."  The  warning  of  Elijah  had 
effect,  and  payment  was  made  the  same  day. 

A  belief  in  miracles,  as  showing  God's  power  and  the 
imam's  influence,  is  a  present  factor  in  their  rehgious  life.  Let 
me  give  a  few  instances  of  this.  In  1882  a  band  of  pilgrims 
reached  Kerbela  after  dark.  The  gates  were  closed  and  the 
guards  refused  to  open  them.  The  pilgrims  prayed,  the  gates 
of  the  city  flew  open  of  their  own  accord,  a  lame  and  a  blind 
man  were  healed,  and  there  were  heavenly  manifestations  to 
both  Sunnis  and  Shiahs.  At  the  news  of  these  signs  Tabriz 
was  excited.  There  were  great  rejoicings.  The  bazaars  were 
illuminated  and  cannon  were  fired,  because  God  had  shown  his 
favor.  In  1883  a  Turkish  pasha  tried  to  persuade  the  keeper 
of  the  shrine  of  Husain,  at  Kerbela,  to  give  him  a  carpet  which 
was  kept  there.  Finally  he  sent  soldiers  to  take  it.  The 
keeper  told  them  he  had  sent  it  to  the  Mosque  of  Abbas. 
The  soldiers  attempted  to  enter  there,  fell  down  on  the  thresh- 
old, and,  spitting  blood,  died  on  the  spot.  In  1894  a  Mus- 
sulman in  Baku  went  to  a  Russian  house  of  prostitution  on  a 
holy  night  in  Muharram.  An  unique  and  unheard-of  punish- 
ment overtook  him,  and  was  regarded  as  a  sign  of  the  displea- 
sure of  the  imam.  It  was  telegraphed  to  Persia  and  was  the 
cause  of  awe  to  multitudes.  In  Zenjan  there  was  a  tree  revered 
for  its  age,  its  size,  and  its  growth,  without  being  watered.  A 
storm  blew  it  over,  and  a  spring  gushed  forth  and  continued 
flowing.     It  was  regarded  as  a  miraculous  blessing. 

Many  of  the  sheiks  and  pirs  among  the  Kurds,  Ali-Allahis, 
and  others,  pretend  to  cure  diseases,  barrenness,  etc.,  by  touch 
and  prayer.  A  reputation  for  holiness  and  power  to  work 
miracles  is  a  great  source  of  gain,  as  well  as  fame,  to  them. 
A  sheik  thus  wished  to  increase  his  reputation  and  influence. 
He  gave  out  that  on  a  certain  day  he  would  kill  and  raise  to 
life  one  of  his  pupils.  A  great  crowd  assembled.  According 
to  previous  arrangement,  a  drug  which  would  put  him  into  a 


220  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

heavy  sleep  had  been  given  to  the  pupil.  He  was  commanded 
to  enter  the  room  and  die.  Then  word  was  given  to  the 
people.  They  entered,  found  him  lifeless,  and  prepared  him 
for  burial.  The  grave  was  dug,  the  body  deposited,  a  little 
earth  placed  upon  it,  and  the  people  were  told  to  come  in  the 
morning.  At  sunrise  a  crowd  assembled,  the  earth  was  re- 
moved, and  the  body  called  upon  to  rise.  No  answer  came. 
He  had  not  correctly  calculated  the  time  when  the  effects  of 
the  drug  would  pass  off.  The  pupil  had  awakened  in  the 
night,  and,  after  trying  to  escape,  had  died.  The  sheik  was 
arrested  for  fraud. 

A  belief  in  charms  and  talismans  (Arabic,  taliswi)  is  almost 
universal.  The  names  of  the  Prophet  and  the  imams  are 
engraved  or  written  on  stones  and  made  into  necklaces  and 
armlets.  Written  prayers,  verses  from  the  Koran,  and  even 
the  whole  Koran,  printed  in  miniature  and  inclosed  in  a  case, 
are  fastened  to  the  arm  or  hung  on  horses.  Necklaces  and 
beads  of  Kerbela  earth  are  carried  about  on  the  person.  Some 
of  this  earth  is  put  into  loads  of  goods  to  protect  them  from 
robbers.  All  these  charms  are  supposed  to  keep  from  disease 
and  accident,  and  especially  from  the  evil  eye.  The  belief  in 
the  evil  eye  [nazar)  is  wide-spread.  Not  only  is  there  supposed 
to  be  danger  from  the  glance  of  a  malignantly  disposed  per- 
son, but  even  words  of  praise  are  dangerous.  No  mother 
wishes  her  child  to  be  praised.  She  is  afraid  it  will  bring  him 
ill  luck,  and  she  will  answer  with  something  disparaging.  She 
will  prevaricate  about  the  number  of  her  children,  for  fear  of 
a  spell.  She  will  dress  her  boy  in  girl's  clothes,  or  in  other 
unbecoming  style,  fearing  that  if  he  looks  handsome  the  evil 
eye  may  strike  him  and  even  cause  his  death.  I  have  been 
shown  a  charm  which  was  cracked.  The  owner  affirmed  that 
some  one  cast  on  him  the  nazar;  it  struck  the  charm  and 
cracked  it ;  otherwise  it  would  have  injured  him. 

The  owner  of  a  large  garden  received  us  on  his  veranda. 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  221 

I  noticed  a  little  piece  of  wood,  with  writing  on  it,  attached 
to  a  post.  To  draw  him  out  I  asked  about  it.  He  answered 
that  it  was  a  prayer,  a  verse  from  the  Koran,  to  prevent  the 
evil  eye.  He  said  that  a  man  once  came  in  and  saw  a  fine 
tree  full  of  fruit,  praised  it,  and  then  the  tree  quickly  withered 
up.  Another  came  through  the  covered  hall,  admired  it,  and 
it  fell  down,  A  charm  of  great  potency  is  supposed  to  be  the 
name  of  the  mother  of  Moses.  They  regard  it  as  unknown. 
I  have  a  number  of  times  been  asked  for  it,  and  answered 
according  to  the  Bible.  They  were  surprised  and  incredulous 
that  I  should  know  it.  They  believe  that  by  saying  it  a  locked 
door  will  fly  open,  and  other  signs  be  wrought. 

The  power  of  spells  was  tried  in  the  Babis'  war,  at  Zenjan. 
It  is  narrated  that  a  figure  in  woman's  attire  came  out  with  a 
black  pitcher  and  began  to  sprinkle  water  near  the  Babi  quarter. 
The  Babis  went  out  and  found  that  it  was  a  man  in  disguise. 
He  said  that  six  of  the  mollas  had  read  prayers  and  repeated 
spells  over  the  water  for  forty  days  and  given  him  twenty  to- 
mans to  sprinkle  it,  that  the  Babis  might  be  dispersed. 

There  was  a  noted  highway  robber,  Lala  Beg,  whom  the 
government  had  made  many  vain  efforts  to  capture.  One 
time  he  killed  eight  soldiers  and  fled.  They  thought  he  used 
magic  to  protect  himself.  The  Zil-i-Sultan  commanded  Rukn-i- 
Doulah  to  capture  or  kill  him,  A  sayid  promised  to  throw  a 
spell  around  him,  and  in  consideration  of  this  received  five 
hundred  tomans.  The  prince,  one  hundred  and  fifty  soldiers, 
and  the  sayid  came  upon  the  robber.  He  was  sitting  in  a 
field  eating  his  breakfast.  The  soldiers  were  afraid  to  ap- 
proach, fearing  his  magic.  The  sayid  called  out  to  him,  "  O 
giaour,  infidel,  we  must  either  kill  or  capture  you!"  His 
words  were  scarcely  finished  when  Lala  Beg  cried  out,  "  O 
sayid,  you  call  me  an  infidel!  I  don't  wish  to  give  you  pain, 
because  you  are  a  descendant  of  the  Prophet.  Look  between 
your  eyes!  "     The  gun  gave  a  report  and  the  sayid  dropped, 


222  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

smitten  through  the  brain.     His  magic  was  vain  for  his  pro- 
tection. 

There  is  a  wide-spread  beHef  in  signs,  lucky  and  unlucky 
omens,  indications  of  the  stars,  etc.  As  in  ancient  Chaldea, 
so  now  in  Persia,  astrology  is  a  flourishing  science.  The 
munajim  or  astrologer  has  a  recognized  place.  He  is  found 
in  the  palace,  he  is  consulted  by  the  poor.  The  hves  of  some 
men  are  directed  by  him  in  all  their  details,  and  nothing  is 
done  unless  the  omens  are  favorable.  By  a  glance  at  the 
Persian  almanac  we  can  understand  some  of  the  details  of  their 
trade.  They  have  the  years  divided  into  a  series  of  twelve, 
with  Jagatai  Ttu-kish  names,  respectively  the  year  of  the  mouse, 
ox,  leopard,  rabbit,  whale,  snake,  horse,  hog,  hen,  sheep,  dog, 
and  monkey.  Every  year  has  its  special  attributes.  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  year  of  the  rabbit  rain  will  be  abundant.  A 
child  bom  in  the  first  third  of  it  will  be  quick  and  truthful,  in 
the  middle  will  be  stupid,  in  the  last  third  will  be  wise.  Direc- 
tions are  given  as  to  what  to  do  at  the  beginning  of  each 
month,  that  it  may  pass  in  safety  and  without  sickness  or  mis- 
fortune. When  the  new  moon  of  Ramadan  is  first  seen,  im- 
mediately look  at  vegetables  or  running  water,  or  at  a  turquoise 
or  agate,  and  at  nothing  else.  After  a  view  of  the  new  moon 
of  Safar,  look  at  a  mirror,  at  gold  or  silver ;  of  Ramadan,  look 
at  a  ring,  a  sword,  armor,  fire,  or  the  Koran  ;  and  so  the  lucky 
omens  are  given  for  each  separate  month.  There  is  a  table 
telling  by  what  sign  to  find  anything.  To  let  a  hat,  a  whip,  or 
a  pen  drop,  to  hear  a  crow  or  a  bat,  see  a  snake,  burn  one's 
clothes,  have  a  bad  dream,  or  a  nose-bleed,  or  a  cat  jump  into 
the  lap,  to  weep  or  laugh  in  sleep — it  is  indicated  for  each 
day  of  the  month  what  each  of  these  events  signifies,  of  weak- 
ness or  strength,  sleeplessness,  trembling,  or  success.  It  tells 
on  what  day  and  month  to  be  bled  or  have  a  tooth  pulled,  or 
to  write  a  prayer  that  a  scorpion  may  not  sting,  or  to  put  on  a 
new  coat,  go  to  the  bath,  go  on  a  journey,  or  when  to  see  the 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  223 

governor  or  the  king.  One  day  is  good  to  put  a  child  in  a 
cradle,  another  to  begin  nursing  it.  One  is  good  for  getting 
married  in,  another  for  watering  the  garden ;  one  day  is  lucky 
for  nothing  whatever.  It  is  made  plain  what  results,  good  or 
evil,  come  from  the  twitching  of  the  eyelids,  or  of  any  other 
member.  Sneezing  once  is  unlucky,  sneezing  twice  is  lucky. 
Three  lamps  in  a  room  are  bad  luck.  The  number  thirteen 
is  unlucky.  In  counting  they  say,  "  ten,  eleven,  twelve,  it  is 
not  thirteen,  fourteen."  If  a  man  is  going  out  to  business  or  to 
the  mosque,  and  one  asks  him  where  he  is  going,  he  considers 
it  a  bad  omen  and  returns,  or  sits  down  for  ten  minutes  and 
starts  again. 

Fortunate  is  the  great  man  who  can  have  an  astrologer 
always  with  him,  to  observe  the  stars  and  cast  the  die  on  the 
brass  instrument,  with  its  thousand  curious  signs.  The  astrol- 
oger is  master  of  the  secret  science.  He  can  tell  when  to  start 
on  a  journey,  what  physician  the  sick  should  call,  and  whether 
his  medicine  will  be  profitable.  He  can  tell  who  is  the  thief, 
and  frighten  the  criminal  into  returning  the  booty.  In  some 
places  there  are  fal-khanas  or  houses  of  divination,  where  priests 
are  ready,  for  a  consideration,  to  tell  fortunes.  Sometimes 
the  holy  books  are  consulted.  I  heard  of  a  case  where,  on 
opening  the  book,  the  finger  rested  on  the  words,  "  This  year 
thou  shalt  die."  Fear  accomplished  the  portend,  and  death 
shortly  occurred. 

The  astrologers  understand  a  good  deal  of  astronomy. 
They  make  correct  calculations  of  eclipses  and  understand 
them.  Ignorant  people,  however,  have  curious  notions  con- 
cerning them.  One  man  gave  as  the  reason  of  an  eclipse  that 
the  sun  had  sinned  and  God  took  its  light  till  it  repented.  I 
saw  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  May  17,  1882,  from  the  roof  of 
Fiske  Seminary,  Urumia.  Many  of  the  bazaars  were  closed. 
The  populace  were  excited.  They  betook  themselves  to  prayer 
in  the  mosques.     Their  loud  supplications  could  be  distinctly 


224  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

heard.  One  Mohammedan  went  immediately  and  paid  a  Jew 
a  debt.  Many  thought  it  portended  war  or  trouble  to  the 
king. 

Much  superstitious  fear  was  awakened  by  the  appearance 
of  the  brilliant  comet  of  1880.  It  was  brought  into  connec- 
tion with  a  prophecy  uttered  by  an  Italian  priest,  who  set  the 
time  for  the  world's  destruction  in  December.  It  was  pub- 
lished in  Turkish  and  Persian  newspapers,  and  created  a  sen- 
sation. This  fear  was  not  confined  to  Mohammedans,  but 
extended  to  Armenians.  One  Armenian  priest  ordered  his 
people  to  put  off  their  jewelry  and  ornaments  and  betake 
themselves  to  prayer  and  supplication. 

The  action  of  the  people  in  an  earthquake  was  interesting 
to  observe.  In  May,  1883,  at  night,  several  shocks  disturbed 
the  sleeping  city.  At  noon  of  the  next  day  a  severe  shock 
caused  every  one  to  flee  into  the  yards.  Nearly  every  house 
in  the  city  was  cracked,  some  roofs  fell  in,  and  walls  were 
overturned.  Eleven  houses  fell  in  Bagh-Meshed.  Many  ar- 
ticles in  the  bazaars  were  overturned.  Vases  were  knocked 
from  the  mantels,  dishes  fell  with  a  crash  to  the  floor,  and  dust 
and  plaster  covered  everything.  The  dogs  set  up  a  terror- 
stricken  whine.  Men  ran  in  all  directions,  sometimes  against 
one  another.  Bankers,  in  their  haste,  abandoned  their  money- 
bags, and  some  women  managed  to  get  away  with  them. 
People  might  be  heard  standing  in  the  middle  of  their  yards 
calling  to  God  for  mercy,  and  wailing  and  crying  with  terror. 
Others  ran  into  the  open  fields  beating  their  breasts.  The 
Armenian  priests  consulted  their  books  and  said  that  there 
would  be  another  one  at  1 1  p.m.,  and  that  it  portended  the 
death  of  kings  and  great  wars.  An  astrologer  from  Teheran 
sent  an  assuring  telegram  that  the  earthquake  would  continue 
for  forty  days.  A  Tabriz  molla  predicted  a  shock  on  the  fol- 
lowing Sunday  at  2  p.m.  People  were  in  terror;  many  quit 
sleeping  in  their  houses,  and  camped  in  the  gardens.     The 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  225 

crown  prince  tented  in  his  park.  Ladies  were  so  much  scared 
that  they  imagined  half  a  dozen  shocks  a  night.  One  man  said 
that  his  wife's  heart  beat  so  hard  that  he  could  not  tell  whether 
there  was  a  shock  or  not.  On  Sunday  the  bazaars  were  all 
closed.  But  the  prediction  failed,  and  the  molla  was  arrested 
for  frightening  the  people.  One  Persian  explanation  of  the 
earthquake  was  that  the  ox  which,  with  twenty-one  horns,  sup- 
ports the  earth  was  enraged  and  was  tossing  his  horns. 

There  are  many  other  religious  practices  or  superstitions 
among  the  Persians.  I  shall  mention  one  more.  Their  idea 
of  ceremonial  defilement  has  a  special  bearing  on  their  relation 
to  foreigners  and  native  Christians.  Their  law  of  clean  and 
unclean  meats  is  copied  after  that  of  the  Jews.  An  exception 
is  made  for  camel-meat.  Oysters,  lobsters,  hare,  and  pork 
are  abominations.  Once  I  was  narrating  the  parable  of  the 
prodigal  son.  Before  I  had  finished  a  man  stuck  his  fingers 
into  his  ears  and  went  away,  saying  that  it  was  defiling  to 
listen  to  me.  His  ground  of  offense  was  that  I  had  mentioned 
swine  and  had  said  that  the  father  had  embraced  the  boy  who 
had  been  feeding  them. 

In  avoiding  social  relations  with  other  races  the  Shiahs  go 
beyond  the  Koran  and  their  Simni  neighbors.  "  The  people 
of  the  Book,"  including  the  Jews  and  Christians,  if  not  Zoro- 
astrians,  are  "  clean,"  and  they  are  so  regarded  by  the  Arabs 
and  Osmanlis.  But  the  Persians  regard  the  touch  of  a  Chris- 
tian as  defiling. 

According  to  their  strict  notions  it  is  a  pollution  for  a  Chris- 
tian to  enter  the  house  of  a  Mohammedan,  Ambassadors 
from  Europe,  when  first  received,  were  not  permitted  to  enter 
the  residences  of  the  officials.  Mr.  Anthony  Jenkinson  came 
to  Persia  with  a  letter  from  Queen  Elizabeth.  When  he  de- 
parted from  an  audience  with  the  king  a  servant  followed  him 
till  he  was  beyond  the  court,  sprinkhng  sand  on  the  path  he 
walked  over,  showing  the  idea  they  had  of  his  uncleanness. 


226  PERSI/1N  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

The  shah-zada  (governor)  of  Tabriz  did  not  receive  the  French 
embassy  of  1841  until  several  days  had  passed,  because  there 
was  much  rain,  and  the  dampness  would  make  the  intercourse 
with  Christians  more  defiling.  This  dread  of  contamination  in 
time  of  rain  is  still  prevalent.  Armenians  used  to  be  prohib- 
ited from  going  on  the  streets  when  it  was  raining,  and  only 
in  1880  the  governor  of  Ardebil  annulled  the  prohibition  in 
that  city.  As  late  as  1889  some  Armenians  in  Maragha  were 
beaten  because  raindrops  from  their  defiled  garments  fell  on 
Mohammedans. 

The  touch  of  a  Christian  makes  food  unclean  to  him.  Hence 
a  Mohammedan  will  not  buy  meat  slaughtered  or  touched  by 
a  Christian,  nor  any  kind  of  moist  food.  Some  village  children, 
with  clothes  in  tatters  and  covered  with  dirt,  were  given  a  few 
grapes  by  a  foreigner.  Their  parents  would  not  permit  them 
to  eat  of  the  fruit  until  it  was  washed.  If  the  strict  Shiah  is 
under  the  business  necessity  of  entering  a  Christian's  house  he 
will  not  drink  tea  from  his  cups  or  even  in  his  house  unless  it 
is  made  by  a  Mohammedan  servant.  He  will  not  smoke  the 
pipe  after  a  Christian,  nor  accept  his  hospitality  in  any  way. 
Indeed,  Mohammedans  have  been  abused  and  beaten  for  tak- 
ing service  with  a  Christian.  Even  at  the  present  day  most 
of  the  servants  of  Europeans  belong  to  heterodox  sects.  A 
Mohammedan  who  was  traveling  with  Christians  asked  for  a 
drink  of  water.  In  reply  he  received  a  blow  on  the  face,  with 
the  remark  that  he  was  worse  than  the  Armenians,  because  he 
traveled  with  them. 

Vessels,  also,  if  used  by  a  Christian,  are  defiled  and  unfit 
for  use.  A  copper  vessel  may  be  purified  by  immersing  it  in 
water  and  praying  over  it,  or  by  repeating  the  creed ;  but  an 
earthen  vessel  must  be  broken.  Water-sellers  will  sometimes 
give  Christian  travelers  a  drink  for  more  than  the  price  of  the 
mug,  and  then  break  it.  They  have  been  known  even  to  break 
the  bowl  from  which  water  was  poured  out  on  a  Christian's 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  227 

hands  to  wash  them.  Wash-water  poured  out  where  the  sun 
cannot  shine  makes  the  place  unclean  forever.  On  such  an 
occasion  the  owner  of  the  house  consulted  with  a  molla  as  to 
what  he  should  do.  The  latter  told  him  that  he  must  rebuild 
the  house.  He  therefore  demanded  the  price  of  the  house,  say- 
ing that  he  must  tear  it  down.  One  man  excused  himself  for 
giving  his  room  to  Christians,  saying  that  the  house  was  old 
and  he  intended  to  tear  it  down  anyhow.  Dr.  Perkins  with 
his  dead  child  was  compelled  to  sleep  in  the  street.  An 
American  scientist,  ignorant  of  the  language,  approached  a 
lunch-stand,  and  putting  out  a  piece  of  money  reached  for 
some  kabab.  The  restaurateur  gave  a  shriek  of  dismay,  fear- 
ing his  viands  would  be  polluted  in  the  eyes  of  all  other  cus- 
tomers. The  same  traveler  drank  water  by  having  it  poured 
into  his  hands.  On  account  of  this  feeling  the  traveler  in 
many  parts  of  Persia  must  take  his  cooking  and  drinking  ves- 
sels along  with  him,  not  knowing  at  what  place  they  may  be 
refused.  Often,  indeed,  many  of  these  difficulties  are  overcome 
by  a  little  extra  money.  A  Persian  proverb  says  :  "  By  giving 
money  the  molla  can  be  cast  out  of  the  mosque."  The  love 
of  money  overcomes  many  an  orthodox  Shiah's  prejudices. 

This  defilement  is  supposed  to  reach  not  only  foods  and  drink 
and  the  vessels  that  contain  them,  but  to  contaminate  other 
things  as  well.  A  street  urchin  with  not  a  clean  square  inch  on 
his  body  has  been  known  to  ask  alms  of  a  Christian  and  wash  the 
money  before  putting  it  in  his  pocket.  At  a  reception  an  officer 
dropped  his  cane.  An  Armenian  nobleman  politely  picked  it 
up  and  handed  it  to  him.  The  latter,  with  disdain,  sent  the 
cane  out  to  be  washed  before  he  would  use  it.  A  story,  prob- 
ably exaggerated,  was  told  of  a  nobleman  who  went  to  a  re- 
ception and  gave  his  arm  to  a  Christian  lady  to  promenade. 
When  he  returned  home  his  khanum  had  the  sleeve  of  the  coat 
taken  out,  washed,  and  pressed.  A  Mussulman  who  was  hav- 
ing a  suit  made  by  an  Armenian  tailor  told  him  not  to  press  it, 


228  PERSUN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

as  that  would  necessitate  dampening  it,  nor  to  thread  his  needle 
by  putting  his  thread  to  his  mouth,  nor  to  cut  the  thread  with 
his  teeth.  A  shoemaker  was  told  not  to  blacken  his  shoes, 
but  let  his  Mussulman  apprentice  do  that.  It  is  for  this  rea- 
son that  a  Christian  is  rarely  permitted  to  enter  a  mosque  or 
shrine.  A  sayid  had  a  prayer-room  where  for  years  the  story 
of  the  martyred  imams  had  been  told.  He  was  much  cha- 
grined because  the  Armenians  bought  the  neighboring  house 
and  so  his  room  became  unfit  for  sacred  use.  Strict  Shiahs  will 
not  sell  a  Christian  a  Koran,  or  anything  containing  a  verse 
of  it,  nor  will  they  allow  him  even  to  touch  it.  For  this  action 
they  quote  the  verse  of  the  Koran  :  "  Let  none  touch  it  but  the 
purified."  They  even  prefer  that  no  translation  of  the  Koran 
shall  be  made,  though  a  Persian  interlineary  has  been  published. 
The  more  bigoted  will  not  give  the  Christian  the  polite  greet- 
ing, "Peace  be  to  you!  "  The  infidel  has  no  peace;  to  him 
he  says,  "May  God  keep  you!  "  It  shows  how  this  fear  of 
defilement  is  in  their  minds,  that  when  a  man  in  Kurdistan 
became  demented  his  craze  was  that  he  was  ceremonially  un- 
clean, and  he  wished  continually  to  wash  himself. 

Sometimes  the  nature  of  these  customs  provokes  retaliation. 
An  English  consul  in  Tabriz  went  to  call  on  a  Persian.  They 
shook  hands,  and  then  the  Persian  reached  his  hands  out  of 
the  window  to  be  washed.  When  the  consul  left  he  parted 
with  the  same  greeting,  and  he  then  walked  to  the  fountain  in 
the  courtyard,  ordered  his  servants  to  bring  a  towel  and  soap, 
and  washed  his  hands  thoroughly  in  the  presence  of  the  Per- 
sians. But  this  bigotry  is  fast  passing  away.  Already  more 
than  half  of  the  people  are  ashamed  of  such  ideas.  Most  Per- 
sian gentlemen  receive  the  Christian,  especially  if  he  be  a  for- 
eigner, with  courtesy  and  true  politeness,  extend  to  him  the 
hand  of  fellowship,  serve  refreshments  to  him,  visit  him,  and 
accept  his  hospitality  in  return.  The  court  of  the  shah  gives 
countenance  to  no  such  antiquated  notions.    Foreigners  guard 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  229 

against  offending  the  sensibilities  of  the  strict,  and  such  preju- 
dices are  fast  sinking  out  of  sight. 

With  respect  to  its  morals  Persia  takes  a  low  rank.  In 
social  life,  polygamy,  concubinage,  temporary  marriage,  and 
free  divorce  manifest  their  demoralizing  effects.  Sensuality  is 
strongly  developed.  Impure  thought  and  conversation  prevail. 
Their  stories  and  poetry  abound  in  obscenity,  and  many  of 
their  picture-books  are  unfit  to  look  at.  The  sensual  doctrine 
of  a  heaven  where  every  man  will  have  seventy  houris  suits 
the  popular  taste.  Though  much  freedom  is  given  by  law  to 
the  passions,  yet  unnatural  vices  prevail.  Sodomy  is  common 
among  the  vicious  class  and  the  wealthy ;  even  Armenian  and 
Nestorian  youth,  following  the  lead  of  some  of  their  bishops, 
are  guilty  of  it.  Theft  and  highway  robbery  are  common, 
burglary  rare.  Gambling  prevails  among  the  upper  classes. 
The  profane  use  of  the  divine  name  by  men  and  women  alike 
strikes  the  ear  continually.  Cursing  is  a  public  nuisance ;  the 
donkeys  are  driven  through  the  streets  with  oaths.  Yet  revil- 
ing, though  so  common,  excites  many  quarrels,  and  is  resented 
with  intense  passion,  especially  the  reviling  of  another's  religion. 
It  is  severely  punished.  Wife-beating  is  common.  Human  life 
is  held  cheap,  and  many  go  about  with  daggers  in  their  belts. 
Almost  every  traveler  carries  a  gun  with  him  for  protection. 
Oppression  and  injustice  are  widely  prevalent.  But  the  char- 
acteristic faults  of  the  Persians  are  deceit  and  its  twin  vice, 
dishonesty.  All  departments  of  life  are  so  filled  with  deceit 
that  one  becomes  incredulous  of  every  statement  until  it  is  con- 
firmed. Xenophon  says  that  the  ancient  Persians  were  taught 
three  things :  to  shoot  with  a  bow,  ride  a  horse,  and  tell  the 
truth.  For  the  first  they  have  substituted  the  rifle  and  retain 
their  skill,  as  also  in  riding ;  but  truth-telling  is  a  lost  art. 
Falsehood  is  so  natural  that  it  is  hard  for  them  to  tell  the  truth 
even  when  it  is  to  their  advantage.  Mar  Yohannan  said  that 
"people  lie  as  long  as  they  can  find  lies  to  tell,  after  which 


230  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

they  may  from  accident  or  necessity  once  or  twice  speak  the 
truth."  Professor  Browne  translates  a  tradition  that  certain 
persons  demanded  of  the  Imam  Jafar-i-Sadik,  "Will  yom- 
followers  commit  crimes  and  do  unlawful  actions? "  He 
answered,  "  Yes."  "  Will  they  be  guilty  of  fornication  and 
sins  against  nature  ?  "  they  asked.  "  It  is  possible,"  he  replied. 
"Will  they  drink  wine  and  commit  murder?  "  they  inquired. 
"  It  is  likely  enough,"  said  he.  "  Will  they  utter  a  false- 
hood? "  they  interrogated.  "  That,"  said  he,  "  is  impossible." 
The  imam  evidently  had  a  sense  of  humor.  A  preacher  spoke 
from  the  text,  "  Lie  not  one  to  another."  After  the  serAace  a 
young  man  came  up  and  introduced  his  brother  as  a  "  dread- 
ful liar."  The  narrator  remarks  that  the  latter  might  have  re- 
turned the  compliment  without  adding  in  the  least  to  his  former 
reputation.  Yet  a  phrase  constantly  on  the  lips  of  a  Persian 
is,  "  The  liar  is  an  enemy  of  God." 

One  reason  why  Persians  are  false  is  because  they  are  taught 
the  doctrine  of  tagia.  According  to  this  doctrine  it  is  right  to 
deny  one's  faith  for  the  sake  of  safety.  It  justifies  pretend- 
ing to  be,  and  acting  like,  a  Sunni  when  on  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca.  It  widens  into  the  idea  that  deceit  for  a  good  purpose 
is  proper,  and  resolves  the  good  into  what  is  advantageous. 

Many  Persians  have  a  great  fear  of  false  oaths  taken  for- 
mally upon  the  Koran.  Their  dread  of  a  curse  acts  as  a  restraint 
upon  them.  By  custom  an  oath  is  to  them  an  end  of  strife. 
Informal  false  oaths  are  an  habitual  occurrence.  Most  shop- 
keepers think  it  necessary  to  swear  by  all  the  imams  as  to  the 
price  they  paid  and  the  gain  they  are  making  on  a  transac- 
tion. Seals  can  easily  be  got  to  a  false  document.  In  the 
Babi  wars  the  Persian  generals  did  not  hesitate  to  give  their 
seal  and  oath  on  the  Koran,  guaranteeing  the  safety  of  those 
who  should  surrender,  and  yet  they  slaughtered  them  after 
they  had  laid  down  their  arms. 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  231 

As  to  dishonesty,  it  is  sadly  prevalent.  We  have  probably 
greater  rascals  in  America,  who  wreck  railroads  and  embezzle 
millions;  but  in  Persia  the  proportion  of  dishonest  people  is 
inconceivably  large.  Deceit  in  bargaining,  overreaching,  re- 
pudiation, bribery,  and  venality  are  usual  factors.  An  honest 
man — the  noblest  work  of  God! — is  rare.  Diogenes  would 
light  his  lantern  and  search  a  long  while  for  him.  Servants  are 
a  very  unfaithful  class.  Besides  his  salary  the  cook  reckons 
on  such  perquisites  as  fees  from  the  shopkeepers,  the  differ- 
ence between  silver  and  copper  currency ;  he  will,  moreover, 
charge  more  than  he  has  paid,  and  collect  commissions  from 
peddlers  and  others  who  sell  to  his  master,  or  to  whom  he  sells. 
In  addition  he  may  take  things  to  his  home  or  sell  them  in  the 
market.  One  servant  inquired,  on  being  hired,  how  much  rice 
was  used  in  the  house,  wishing  to  gauge  his  mudakhil  or  illegit- 
imate income.  An  Enghsh  consul,  tired  of  having  his  horses 
starved  and  the  feed  sold,  adopted  the  habit  of  coming  out 
and  standing  by  while  they  were  being  fed.  The  hostler  made 
a  trap-door,  so  that  he  could  let  the  barley  fall  down  below 
and  take  it  away  afterward.  In  building-operations  all  sorts 
of  tricks  are  practised.  Even  the  picks  and  shovels  must  be 
counted  every  night,  or  they  will  be  missing  in  the  morning. 
The  Persians  are  so  unable  to  trust  one  another  that  few  great 
companies  are  formed,  and  thus  many  things  that  might  be 
done  with  large  capital  must  remain  undone. 

The  conscience  of  the  Persian  is  not  often  of  the  tender 
sort.  If  it  is,  the  law  (Shari)  affords  an  easy  way  of  quieting 
it.  Restitution  is  rarely  thought  of  by  the  penitent.  I  knew 
only  one  man  to  restore  the  value  of  stolen  property.  A  fellah 
entered  in  great  agitation  and  put  two  reals  into  my  hand,  say- 
ing that  he  had  stolen  a  shovel  two  years  before,  and  his  con- 
science was  not  easy.  The  mollas  claim  the  power  of  purifying 
dishonest  gains — making  them  hallal.     A  conscience-smitten 


232  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

man  went  to  a  molla  in  a  small  city  and  said  he  wished  to 
have  his  unlawful  money  cleansed  and  his  conscience  eased. 
The  molla  said,  "All  right ;  give  me  ten  tomans  and  I  will  do 
it  for  you."  He  said  to  himself,  "  How  will  giving  him  ten 
tomans  cleanse  the  remainder?  "  He  went  to  another  molla. 
He  would  do  it  thoroughly  for  twenty.  Finally  he  went  to  the 
mujtehid,  who  said,  "  Give  me  all  your  property  and  I  will 
cleanse  it  for  you.  I  do  not  say  whether  I  will  give  it  back 
to  you  or  not.  Make  an  entire  surrender  and  I  will  cleanse 
your  money  and  your  conscience."  He  wrote  a  list  of  all  he 
possessed,  even  to  his  clothing.  It  amounted  to  one  hundred 
and  iifty  tomans.  Then  the  mujtehid  said,  "  Now  give  me  a 
note  for  the  one  hundred  and  fifty."  Having  received  this,  he 
added,  "  Now  go  and  get  me  fifty  tomans,  and  next  year  you 
may  pay  me  fifty  more,  and  the  following  year  fifty,  and  your 
property  and  your  conscience  will  then  be  purified."  After- 
ward the  man  narrated  the  transaction  to  a  Nestorian,  who  told 
him  to  repent  and  restore  to  those  whom  he  had  defrauded, 
and  hereafter  use  a  just  weight  and  measure.  He  returned 
to  the  mujtehid  and  told  him  that  his  wife  objected  to  the  ar- 
rangement, and  got  his  note  returned  to  him. 

It  is  supposed  that  if  the  man  from  whom  money  has  been 
stolen  will  say  willingly,  by  subterfuge  or  otherwise,  "  It  is  ex- 
cused," "  It  is  lawful,"  it  becomes  so.  Dr.  Browne  translates 
an  amusing  story  illustrating  this.  "  The  mother  of  a  thief  was 
dying,"  he  writes,  "  and  she  enjoined  her  son  to  obtain  for  her 
a  lawful  shroud.  He  sallied  forth  at  night,  attacked  a  traveler, 
and  found  in  his  saddle-bags  a  piece  of  linen.  Seeing  this,  he 
exclaimed,  '  Praise  be  to  God,  who  has  not  suffered  me  to  re- 
turn disappointed  and  ashamed  to  my  mother ! '  Then  he  began 
to  beat  the  owner  of  the  linen,  saying, '  Make  this  hnen  lawful 
to  me  with  thy  whole  heart.'  On  his  return  he  told  his  mother 
that  the  man  had  more  than  a  thousand  times  said  with  tears 
and  groans,  '  I  make  it  lawful  to  thee.' " 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  MORALS  233 

The  Persians  have,  nevertheless,  some  good  traits  of  charac- 
ter. They  are  charitable,  hospitable,  contented,  industrious, 
temperate,  and  not  bloodthirsty  nor  quarrelsome.  Their  gen- 
tleness, affability,  and  courteous  manner,  though  at  times  in- 
sincere, cannot  be  gainsaid. 


CHAPTER   XIII 


AMONG    THE    ALI-ALLAHIS 


THE  Ali-Allahis  are  a  sect  which  is  widely  scattered  in 
Islam,  and  is  regarded  as  heterodox,  and  consequently 
is  despised  and  slandered  by  both  Shiahs  and  Sunnis.  They 
conform  externally  to  most  of  the  rites  of  the  Mohammedans 
around  them,  but  have  esoteric  doctrines  and  practices,  the 
secrecy  of  which  leads  to  much  surmise  as  well  as  suspicion. 
Nothing  definite  is  known  of  their  system,  unless  the  supposi- 
tion is  correct  that  they  have  affinity  with  the  Nusairiyeh  of 
Syria.  The  tenets  of  the  latter  were  revealed  by  a  pervert, 
Suleiman  Effendi,  in  a  book  published  in  Arabic,  and  found  in 
English  in  the  "  Proceedings  of  the  American  Oriental  Society." 
Whether  the  information  I  have  received  of  the  Ali-Allahis  is 
authentic  or  not  I  have  no  means  of  verifying  ;  but  I  have  little 
doubt  there  are  large  grains  of  truth  in  what  follows,  which 
will  aid  the  future  investigator  to  arrive  at  a  full  understanding 
of  their  tenets,  while  my  experience  among  them  will  afford 
reliable  views  of  their  village  life. 

I  first  became  acquainted  with  the  Ali-Allahis  when  on  a 
visit  to  Ilkachi,  one  of  their  villages,  at  the  time  of  Noruz. 
Pir  Semmet  Aga,  their  sheik,  had  invited  us  to  the  wedding- 
festivities  of  his  son.  We  found  him  dressed  in  long  flowing 
robes  of  the  old  Persian  style,  with  a  felt  skull-cap  and  bare 
feet.  The  people  regarded  him  as  holy  and  worthy  of  high 
reverence.  They  came  into  his  presence  to  kiss  his  hand, 
offer  him  gifts,  and  sacrifice  sheep  and  oxen  in  his  honor. 

234 


AMONG    THE  ALI-ALLAHIS  235 

They  brought  their  sick  to  him  to  be  prayed  over  and  healed. 
Some  poor  men  came  with  an  offering  of  bread,  and,  kneel- 
ing and  prostrating  themselves,  kissed  his  feet.  He  took  the 
bread,  blessed  it,  brake  it,  and  distributed  it  to  them,  as  a  con- 
secrated thing.  He  regarded  himself  as  sinless  and  endowed 
by  God  with  original  righteousness ;  but  a  proper  definition  led 
him  to  admit  his  sinfulness. 

On  the  day  after  our  arrival  we  accompanied  the  pir  and  his 
people  to  their  cemetery.  It  was  the  last  day  of  their  year, 
and  according  to  custom  they  were  going  to  repair  the  graves. 
The  pir  headed  the  procession.  At  the  graves  he  read  from 
the  Koran  and  intoned  some  prayers,  after  which  taffy  and 
sweetmeats  were  eaten.  He  was  specially  interested  in  test- 
ing the  correctness  of  the  direction  of  the  graves  by  a  compass 
which  I  had.  They  called  it  the  Kebla-nania^  i.e.,  indicator 
of  the  Kebla  at  Mecca.  A  question  of  his  shows  how  preva- 
lent are  mistaken  ideas.  He  asked  me  if  it  were  true  that  in 
America  we  disposed  of  the  bodies  of  the  dead  by  putting  them 
in  a  liquid  which  dissolved  them,  and  then  poured  it  all  out 
on  the  ground. 

Above  the  cemetery  and  on  the  hill  beyond  are  two  shrines, 
one  for  men  and  one  for  women.  The  one  for  men  is  the 
larger  of  the  two.  It  was  built,  so  they  declared,  by  the 
widow  of  a  humble  saint  in  a  single  night,  without  assistance 
from  any  one.  Before  that  a  light  had  burned  there,  an  ema- 
nation from  the  presence  of  the  husband's  ghost.  The  age  of 
the  tomb  was  reported  as  several  centuries.  I  asked  a  long- 
haired, wild-looking  dervish  how  old  it  was.  He  said,  "  Before 
Abraham  was,  it  was."  Further  questioning  brought  out  the 
fact  that  he  meant  before  his  son  Abraham  was  born.  We 
entered  and  examined  the  shrine.  It  had  an  altar  for  sacri- 
fices and  niches  for  burning  candles.  The  people  prostrated 
themselves  and  kissed  the  railing,  thinking  that  their  prayers 
would  be  especially  acceptable  through  the  merit  of  the  saint. 


236  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

In  the  evening  the  villagers  began  to  welcome  the  Noruz 
(New  Year).  Some  fired  off  guns  and  lighted  bonfires  on  the 
flat  roofs.  Young  men  let  down  ropes  on  their  girdles  through 
the  skylights.  To  these  girls  tied  sweetmeats,  or  sometimes 
caught  hold  of  them  and  were  drawn  up  by  the  boys.  It  is 
perhaps  this  frolicsome  play  of  village  life  that  gives  rise  to 
stories  about  orgies  of  Venus  being  kept  among  Ali-Allahis. 
The  festivities  were  prolonged  until  after  midnight.  In  the 
early  morning  they  began  their  round  of  New- Year's  visits  and 
congratulations.  From  five  hundred  to  eight  hundred  persons 
came  to  pay  their  respects  to  our  host.  Many  of  them  brought 
an  apple,  an  orange,  or  a  colored  egg,  presenting  it  to  the 
chief  in  both  hands  as  a  mark  of  respect.  We  joined  in  the 
rejoicings  and  had  a  long  day  of  visiting  and  feasting.  Sweet- 
meats were  served  in  every  house,  though  tea  and  coffee  were 
not  so  much  seen  as  in  the  cities.  We  breakfasted  with  the 
civil  head  of  the  village  (kand-khuda),  the  father  of  the  pro- 
spective bride.  The  Ali-Allahis  have  not  the  idea  that  the 
Shiahs  have  that  eating  with  non-Mussulmans  is  defiling. 
They  are  friendly  and  cordial  in  their  intercourse  with  Chris- 
tians. At  breakfast  we  sat  around  a  kurisee.  This  is  a  table 
about  a  foot  high,  which  in  winter  is  placed  over  the  iandtir 
(underground  oven)  or  pan  of  charcoals,  and  overspread  with 
comforters  to  keep  the  heat  from  escaping.  Around  it,  and 
partly  under  it,  the  family  sit  in  the  daytime  and  sleep  at  night. 
Though  the  time  for  fires  was  passed,  the  kurisee  served  the 
purpose  of  a  table.  On  it  the  cloth  was  spread,  and  the  com- 
pany sat  on  the  floor  around  it.  In  front  of  each  person  were 
put  several  sheets  of  bread,  which  served  as  plates  and  spoons. 
The  bread,  in  color,  size,  and  shape,  resembled  a  half  of  a 
sheepskin.  Each  one  tore  off  a  piece  of  bread,  and  with  it 
helped  himself  from  any  dish,  and  ate  the  bread  and  its  con- 
tents together.  Our  bill  of  fare  seemed  excellent  for  simple  vil- 
lage hfe.     Besides  ordinary  dishes  such  as  mutton,  eggs,  rice, 


AMONG    THE  ALI-ALLAHIS  237 

cheese,  and  curds,  we  kad  cabbage-dumplings,  grape-molasses, 
taffy,  rose-leaf  preserves,  watermelon  preserves,  fig-sauce,  and 
cream  from  the  cow,  the  sheep,  and  the  buffalo.  Buffalo's 
cream  is  a  great  dehcacy.  In  the  evening  we  had  a  dinner 
of  boiled  mutton  and  rice  dressed.  The  natives  used  hands 
for  spoons  and  fingers  for  forks,  and  rolled  up  their  sleeves  to 
facilitate  eating.  We  were  furnished  with  wooden  spoons,  but 
sometimes,  as  a  special  mark  of  favor,  a  piece  of  meat  would 
be  selected  and  passed  to  us  by  some  one  in  his  fingers,  an  act 
of  courtesy  it  can  hardly  be  said  we  enjoyed.*  We  drank 
sherbet  out  of  a  large  punch-bowl,  and  it  required  some  exer- 
cise of  muscle  to  properly  balance  it. 

We  had  scarcely  rested  from  the  New-Year's  festivities 
when  we  were  awakened  by  the  preparations  for  the  wedding. 
Village  custom  allows  much  freedom  to  the  boys  and  girls, 
especially  among  this  sect.  This  young  couple  had  grown 
up  together  and  had  reached  an  understanding  among  them- 
selves. But  they  could  not  openly  have  anything  to  do  with 
the  arrangements.  The  youth  told  a  friend,  and  that  friend 
told  the  pir.  He  proposed  to  the  girl's  father,  who,  after 
considerable  delay,  consented.  After  the  old  folks  had  settled 
the  preliminaries  a  molla  was  called,  who  drew  up  the  contract, 
in  which  the  couple  affirmed  their  desire  to  be  married,  and 
the  man  promised,  if  at  any  time  he  divorced  his  wife,  to  give 
her  a  sum  of  money.  The  amount  varies  from  a  few  tomans 
to  thousands,  according  to  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  parties. 
It  is  much  less  when  the  contract  is  made  with  a  widow  or  a 
divorced  woman.  The  contract  had  been  made  in  the  autumn. 
Then  the  girl  was  veiled  and  her  charms  concealed  from  the 
groom  and  all  his  relatives.  Village  custom  had  not  required 
this  before  that  time.     After  a  period  his  aunts  and  sisters 

*  In  England,  during  the  shah's  visit,  a  Persian  of  distinction  is  said  to 
have  honored  a  lady  of  high  degree  by  taking  a  chicken,  tearing  off  a  piece 
with  his  fingers,  and  passing  it  to  her  ladyship. 


238  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

came  in  a  body,  caught  the  girl,  and  unveiled  her.  But  the 
prospective  groom  could  not  yet  see  her  face. 

The  wedding-day  had  been  set  for  Noruz  and  had  now  ar- 
rived. From  early  morning  till  late  at  night  friends  came  to 
the  groom's  house  with  presents  of  fruits  and  candies,  and  espe- 
cially of  silver  coins,  which  were  presented  stuck  in  an  apple 
or  pomegranate.  This  money  was  intended  to  pay  for  the 
outfit  which  the  groom  had  purchased  for  the  bride.  Toward 
evening  friends  of  the  bridegroom  an-ayed  him  in  his  wedding- 
apparel.  They  then  formed  a  procession,  put  the  presents  on 
trays,  raised  them  on  their  shoulders,  and  marched  with  music 
and  dancing  to  the  bride's  house.  She  did  not  appear,  but  the 
presents  were  sent  upstairs  for  her  to  examine.  Every  man 
who  carried  a  tray  was  entitled  to  a  present  from  the  bride's 
mother.  She  distributed  to  them  thirty  or  forty  pairs  of  stock- 
ings. She  wished  to  acknowledge  our  gifts  in  some  Persian 
way,  but  we  assured  her  the  privilege  of  being  present  was  our 
portion  and  reward. 

The  feast  which  followed  seemed  almost  like  a  sacrament. 
An  invocation  was  made  to  AH,  the  all-powerful  Ruler.  Re- 
sponsive prayers  were  uttered,  and  almost  total  silence  pre- 
vailed. A  candle  was  now  placed  in  the  center  of  the  room. 
The  food  was  first  set  before  the  light  as  a  manifestation  of 
God.  The  men  kissed  the  bread  which  was  passed  to  them, 
and  repeatedly  brought  their  hand  to  their  heart,  their  chin, 
and  their  forehead,  in  token  of  reverence.  There  was  much 
mystery  and  solemnity  about  it  all.  After  the  feast  their  cus- 
tom is  to  rise  and  sway  from  side  to  side,  and  whirl  around 
and  around,  saying,  "  Yahoo,  yahoo!  "  until  an  intense  religious 
frenzy  seizes  them,  and  they  fall  down  exhausted,  frothing 
and  foaming  at  the  mouth.  This  part  of  the  celebration  was 
omitted  at  this  time,  and  instead  of  it  we  were  invited  to  read 
from  the  i)ijil  (gospel). 

On  the  next  evening  the  bride  and  her  friends  formed  a  pro- 


AMONG    THE  ALI-ALLAHIS  239 

cession  and  marched  toward  the  groom's  house.  He  first  came 
out  to  meet  them,  then  suddenly  turned  and  ran  back.  The 
champion  of  the  bride  ran  after  him,  trying  to  overtake  him  and 
seize  his  hat.  He  is  entitled  to  a  forfeit  before  he  restores  it. 
Then  the  groom  went  to  the  housetop  and  threw  apples  at  the 
bridal  procession  as  it  entered  the  yard.  If  his  betrothed  has 
not  hfted  her  veil  for  him  secretly,  he  may  try  to  punish  her  by 
hitting  her.  With  the  arrival  of  the  bride  the  wedding  festiv- 
ities are  over. 

During  these  days  we  had  many  conversations  with  the  pir 
and  his  people  concerning  their  religion.  They  call  themselves 
the  Ahli- Allah  ("  followers  of  God  ").  They  are  called  popu- 
larly Ali-Allahi  ("  believers  in  the  divinity  of  Ali  ").  Some  have 
supposed  that  they  were  once  Christians,  who,  when  con- 
quered by  the  Arabs,  substituted  the  name  of  Ali  for  Jesus, 
and  afterward  forgot  their  origin.  There  is  little  proof  of  this 
supposition.  There  are  at  least  seven  sects  of  them  in  Persia — 
Davudis,  Yedelar,  Sheik- Ibrahimis,  Atash-Begis,  Alavis,  Abdul- 
Begis,  and  Benyaminis.  These  are  followers  of  different  men 
bearing  these  names,  but  supposed  to  be  manifestations  of  the 
same  person,  and,  according  to  some,  incarnations  of  God. 
The  Ali-Allahis  number  several  hundred  thousand  in  Persia. 
The  Gurian  tribe  of  Kermanshah  belongs  to  them.  One  of 
their  traditions  is  that  Nusair  or  Davud,  a  disciple,  said  to  Ali, 
"  You  are  God !  "  Ali  said,  "  Do  not  say  so."  Nusair  repeated 
it,  Ali  struck  him  and  he  died.  Then  Ah  brought  him  to 
life.  Nusair  stood  up  and  said,  "  Did  I  not  rightly  say,  '  You 
are  God  '  ?     Else  how  could  you  make  me  alive?  " 

I  received  the  following  information  concerning  the  beliefs 
of  the  Persian  sects : 

They  reverence  Mohammed  little  more  than  any  other 
prophet.  He  may  be  called  their  John  the  Baptist,  the  fore- 
runner of  Ali,  their  great  prophet.  They  call  Ali  the  Light  of 
God  manifested  in  the  flesh.     They  pay  honor  to  him  which 


240  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

is  due  to  the  Creator  alone.  Prayer  and  sacrifices  of  fruits 
and  animals  are  offered  to  him.  He  is  the  Redeemer.  God 
is"  believed  to  have  made  frequent  manifestations  of  himself  in 
the  prophets.  Ali  was  the  highest  manifestation  of  that  divine 
personality  which  dwelt  in  Abraham,  Moses,  David,  Christ, 
and  Mohammed.  Christ  and  Ali  are  therefore  essentially  the 
same  person.  They  therefore  welcome  Cliristians  as  elder 
brethren.  Many  of  them  listen  with  pleasure  to  the  gospel,  as 
the  Word  of  God.  They  have  little  regard  for  fasting,  alms- 
giving, and  the  Mohammedan  ritual  of  prayer,  but  have  great 
veneration  for  shrines,  and  have  certain  prayers  of  their  own, 
in  Turkish,  which  are  repeated  many  times  a  day. 

Light  is  their  sacred  emblem,  their  symbol  of  the  divine  in- 
fluence. God  is  the  central  light,  from  which  the  universe  of 
spirit  and  life  emanates,  or  is  reflected  as  a  candle  in  a  room 
whose  walls  are  covered  with  many  mirrors.  At  their  feasts, 
as  we  have  seen,  a  portion  of  each  dish  is  set  before  a  Hghted 
candle.  Some  of  them  hold  to  the  pantheistic  conception 
that  not  only  prophets  and  imams,  but  all  angels,  men,  and 
the  vital  principle  in  animals  and  trees,  have  emanated  from 
God  and  are  of  his  essence.  Associated  with  this  idea  is  the 
doctrine  of  transmigration,  and  the  final  absorption  of  all  in 
the  bosom  of  the  Infinite.  The  wicked  are  thought  to  enter 
into  donkeys,  mules,  and  other  beasts  of  burden.  Apropos  of 
transmigration,  an  anecdote  was  told  me  of  a  murshid  who,  one 
day  setting  out  hunting,  caught  a  fox  and  tied  it  to  his  saddle. 
Before  he  could  mount,  the  horse  took  fright  and  ran  back  to 
the  village.  When  the  people  saw  the  fox  in  the  saddle  they 
cried  out,  "O  murshid!  appear  to  us  in  whatever  guise  you 
will,  but  do  not  come  as  a  fox ! "  Some  of  the  Ali-Allahis, 
however,  hold  the  Mussulman  doctrine  of  judgment  and  para- 
dise. Others  of  them,  again,  deny  the  existence  of  Satan. 
Evil  is  a  principle  in  the  heart  of  man,  they  affirm.    Most  men 


AMONG   THE  AU-ALLAHIS  241 

are  regarded  as  sinners,  but  the  prophets  and  the  pirs  or  elders 
are  sinless. 

Two  of  their  rites  come  very  near  to  the  sacraments  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Circumcision  is  performed  by  the  barber,  in 
the  presence  of  the  assembled  relatives.  The  other  rite  greatly 
resembles  the  Passover.  It  is  frequently  celebrated,  and  at  no 
set  time  or  place.  Whoever  wishes  it  at  his  house  consecrates 
a  lamb  or  sheep  for  the  occasion.  The  victim  is  brought  into 
the  yard  of  the  pir,  and  is  sacrificed  to  Ah  by  a  man  who  has 
been  formally  appointed  to  this  service.  It  is  then  cooked, 
blessed,  and  divided  by  the  pir  among  the  men,  and  eaten 
with  bread,  in  great  solemnity.  At  the  same  time  a  selection 
is  read  from  one  of  their  sacred  books.  After  the  reading, 
raisins  and  nuts,  which  have  been  set  aside  as  thank-offerings 
for  the  harvest,  are  distributed,  and  sherbet  is  drunk.  This 
sherbet  is  grape-juice,  boiled  down  to  the  consistency  of 
molasses,  and  mixed  with  water  when  desired  for  drinking. 
Their  story  is  that  the  sect  originated  with  forty  persons,  one 
of  whom  was  Ali.  God  sent  them  a  grape  from  heaven.  Ali 
pressed  the  juice  of  it  and  the  forty  drank  of  it.  From  this 
arose  the  custom  of  drinking  the  sherbet. 

The  sacred  books  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made  are 
in  Turkish,  and  are  understood  by  the  people.  They  were  writ- 
ten by  the  last  of  their  divine  incarnations.  Sultan  Nahani,  a  pole 
of  the  universe,  three  or  four  centuries  ago.  They  are  for  the 
most  part  poetic,  rehgious  autobiography,  and  hold  a  higher 
place  in  their  regard  than  the  Koran.  Many  of  their  sacred 
books  were  lost  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War.  The  author  is  sup- 
posed not  to  have  died,  but  to  have  become  invisible. 

They  have  a  service  for  the  consecration  of  children.  The 
father  presents  the  child  before  his  fifth  year,  holding  a  nutmeg 
in  his  hand,  in  the  presence  of  the  pir.  After  a  ceremony  the 
nutmeg  is  divided  and  given  to  the  assembled  company.    The 


242  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

eldership  among  the  Ah-Allahis  is  hereditary,  or  at  least  is  con- 
fined to  the  priestly  family.  Polygamy  is  rare  ;  but  marriage  is 
not  restricted  by  laws  of  consanguinity.  The  Pir  S.  was  a  cousin 
of  his  successor,  A.  S.  married  A.'s  sister.  Their  son  mar- 
ried first  one,  and  after  her  death  another  of  A.'s  daughters, 
and  A.'s  son  married  S.'s  daughter.  Their  object  in  this  is  to 
preserve  the  sacred  seed.  The  results  are  plainly  seen  in  phys- 
ical, racial,  and  even  in  social  deterioration. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

SOCIAL    AND    FAMILY    LIFE 

THE  Persians  are  eminently  a  social  people.  They  are 
vivacious  and  entertaining,  fond  of  jokes  and  story-tell- 
ing, and  ready  in  repartee.  They  are  much  given  to  visiting 
and  feasting.  This  is  remarkable,  since  the  great  bond  of  soci- 
ety with  us  is  entirely  wanting :  the  social  intercourse  of  men 
and  women  is  not  permitted,  and  the  idea  of  it  shocks  their 
sense  of  propriety.  Men  visit  with  men,  women  with  women. 
Dancing  amazes  them  beyond  measure,  and  seems  an  immod- 
est license  and  a  perversion  of  liberty. 

The  Persians  are  a  pol  te  people.  They  have  elaborate  rules 
of  etiquette,  and  many  set  phrases  and  compliments  suitable 
for  every  occasion.  Visits  are  made  at  the  festivals,  both 
for  congratulation  and  condolence,  and  often  for  the  trans- 
action of  business.  The  physician  is  honored  with  an  hour's 
social  chat  before  the  ailments  of  the  caller-in  are  mentioned. 
He  is  expected  in  return  to  make  himself  comfortable  in  the 
parlor  for  a  prolonged  tea-drinking  before  being  inducted  into 
the  sick-room.  Time  is  of  little  value.  Social  calls  are  often 
of  three  or  four  hours'  duration. 

The  greatest  social  event  in  Persia  is  the  festival  of  the  New 
Year  or  Noruz.  It  commemorates  the  entrance  of  the  sun 
into  the  sign  of  Aries  at  the  vernal  equinox.  It  is  the  most 
fitting  and  beautiful  time  for  the  New  Year.  Then  the  sacred 
year  of  the  Jews  and  of  some  European  nations  began.  March 
25th  was  the  first  day  of  the  year  in  Scotland  until  1600,  and 

245 


244  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

in  England  until  1752.  At  this  season,  Persia,  throughout  most 
of  its  borders,  begins  to  put  on  its  robe  of  verdure,  flowers 
begin  to  bloom,  and  the  farmer  takes  up  his  work  in  the  fields. 
Some  Persians  affirm  that  the  world  began  to  move  in  its 
orbit  on  that  day.  Others  place  the  origin  of  the  festival  in 
the  time  of  Jemshid,  the  founder  of  Persepohs.  He  introduced 
the  solar  year,  and  celebrated  its  first  day  as  a  splendid  fes- 
tival. The  sculptured  procession  on  the  great  staircase  at  Per- 
sepolis  is  supposed  to  represent  the  bringing  of  presents  from 
the  various  provinces  at  Noruz.  This  is  the  only  festival  of 
ancient  Persia  that  has  not  been  displaced  by  the  sacred  sea- 
sons of  Mohammedanism.  The  Persians  never  fail  to  enter 
into  its  enjoyment,  except  when  the  movable  lunar  calendar  of 
Islam  brings  some  religious  ceremony  at  the  same  time.  From 
1893  to  1896  Noruz  falls  in  the  great  fast  of  Ramadan.  The 
festivities  with  which  ancient  kings  celebrated  it  are  curiously 
described  in  the  "Arabian  Nights,"  in  "  The  Enchanted  Horse." 
In  the  introduction  to  this  story  it  is  said :  "  Noruz,  or  the 
new  day,  is  a  festival  so  solemn  and  so  ancient  throughout  the 
whole  extent  of  Persia,  taking  its  origin  even  from  the  earliest 
period  of  idolatry,  that  the  holy  religion  of  the  Prophet,  pure 
and  unsullied  as  it  is,  has  been  hitherto  unable  to  abolish  it ; 
although  it  must  be  confessed  that  it  is  a  custom  completely 
pagan,  and  that  the  ceremonies  observed  in  its  solemnization  are 
of  the  most  superstitious  nature.  Not  to  mention  large  cities, 
there  is  no  town,  borough,  village,  or  hamlet,  however  small, 
where  the  festival  is  not  celebrated  with  extraordinary  rejoic- 
ings. Those  that  take  place  at  court  surpass  all  others  by  the 
variety  of  new  and  surprising  spectacles,  so  that  nothing  that 
is  attempted  in  other  parts  of  the  world  can  approach  or  be 
compared  with  this  sumptuous  magnificence."  A  thousand 
years  after  Haroun-al-Raschid  the  festival  still  holds  its  place. 
To  an  outside  observer  its  ceremonies  do  not  seem  as  "pagan  " 
as  some  of  those  connected  with  Shiahism. 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  245 

Prior  to  the  festival  of  Noruz  the  dervish  pitches  his  white 
tent  before  the  door  of  some  nobleman,  and  sits  there  and  yells, 
"Ya  hak!  "  ("  O  truth!  ")  until  his  claims  to  charity  are  sat- 
isfied. The  letter-carrier  presents  himself  to  receive  an  anam; 
the  cook  expects  a  new  coat ;  the  mirza,  and  even  the  physi- 
cian, are  remembered  by  their  patrons ;  and  the  alderman  re- 
ceives goodly  donations  from  his  constituents.  During  the 
last  week  of  the  old  year  the  bazaars  are  profusely  decorated. 
Gay  cloths,  carpets,  and  shawls  are  exhibited  in  the  shops. 
Pictures,  mirrors,  mottoes,  bunting,  and  embroideries  are  hung 
up.  Arches  are  constructed,  spanning  the  streets  with  pendent 
ornaments.  Villagers  crowd  in  front  of  the  open  shops,  and 
groups  of  boys  stroll  about  to  see  the  sights.  Every  one  buys 
a  collection  of  nuts,  raisins,  figs,  dates,  dried  apricots,  grape- 
juice  paste,  etc.  These  fruits  must  be  of  seven  kinds,  the  name 
of  each  beginning  with  the  letter  S.  The  collection  is  called 
the  yeddi  luvn.  Many  send  to  their  friends  a  plateful,  with 
the  compliments  of  the  season.  The  last  Wednesday,  called 
Akhir  Chahar-Shenba,  is  a  gala  day.  It  is  the  children's  fes- 
tival, but  the  whole  population  is  ready  for  a  frolic.  Clowns 
in  fantastic  costumes  and  ludicrous  masks,  and  strolling  min- 
strels with  tambourines  and  cymbals  and  leading  a  monkey,  per- 
form and  collect  shahis.  Boys  crowd  the  streets,  and  women 
gather  on  the  housetops,  to  see  the  shows.  School-boys  enter 
into  the  spirit  of  the  day  and  make  a  mock  visit  to  their  prin- 
cipal. One  of  them,  arrayed  like  a  Kurdish  sheik,  in  long 
flowing  robes,  great  turban,  and  a  cotton  beard,  and  with  at- 
tendants armed  like  Kurds,  but  with  canes  for  swords,  presents 
himself  and  declares  that  a  fine  has  been  levied  upon  the 
school.  He  receives  a  present,  and  they  all  go  off  to  expend 
it  on  some  of  the  good  things  in  the  bazaars. 

As  the  great  day  approaches,  every  man  says  to  himself, 
"  Well,  to-morrow  is  Noruz.  I  must  get  my  head  shaved,  go 
to  the  bath,  dye  my  hands,  nails,  and  beard  with  henna,  put  on 


246  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

a  clean  skull-cap,  and  see  if  the  tailor  has  my  new  coat  ready. 
I  must  buy  some  sugar  and  tea,  tobacco  and  candy,  and  then 
I  shall  be  ready  for  all  comers." 

In  the  capital  the  festival  is  ushered  in  and  celebrated  with 
elaborate  ceremonies  by  the  shah  and  his  court.  The  crown 
prince  in  Tabriz  keeps  the  day  with  similar  rejoicings.  At  the 
astronomical  termination  of  the  year  a  tray  of  the  seven  fruits 
is  brought  before  the  prince.  Some  of  these  are  eaten.  In- 
cense is  burned,  according  to  a  custom  of  the  fire-worshipers. 
One  hundred  and  ten  guns  are  fired  off,  with  reference  to  Ah, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  named  successor  to  Mohammed  on 
this  day.  Consuls,  nobles,  and  high  officials,  clothed  in  their 
uniforms  and  decorations,  pay  their  salaam  to  his  Highness  and 
partake  of  a  feast.  Luck-money,  coined  with  the  name  of  the 
shah,  is  distributed  to  all.  Some  of  these  gold  and  silver 
tokens  are  sent  to  the  mujtehid  and  other  ecclesiastics.  They 
presage  a  fortunate  year  for  the  recipient,  because  the  king 
thus  indicates  his  royal  favor.  After  the  salaam  there  is  a 
military  review  in  the  jnedan  or  public  square.  The  trumpet 
is  sounded ;  the  officers  on  their  gaily  caparisoned  horses  pre- 
sent themselves  with  their  companies.  Each  soldier  receives  a 
token  of  fourteen  shahis  in  value.  After  the  review,  \ATestling- 
contests  and  ram-fights  enliven  the  scene.  In  some  villages 
buffalo-fights  are  a  part  of  the  programme.  These  powerful 
animals,  sometimes  made  ferocious  by  partial  into.xication,  make 
a  rough  contest.  In  other  places,  such  as  Hamadan,  the  day 
is  ushered  in  with  a  display  of  pyrotechnics.  From  the  house- 
tops thousands  of  rockets  and  "  fusing-jugs  "  are  set  off. 

The  festivities  extend  over  two  or  three  weeks.  The  ba- 
zaars are  generally  closed  and  business  suspended.  All  are 
bent  on  pleasure.  Merrymaking  reigns  supreme.  Days  are 
designated  for  visiting  particular  classes  or  wards  of  the  city. 
On  the  first  day  the  official  class  exchange  visits,  while  the  re- 
ligiously inclined  give  the  honor  of  precedence  to  the  mujte- 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  247 

bids.  On  succeeding  days  the  crowd  moves  from  ward  to 
ward.  Calls  are  often  an  hour  long.  About  breakfast-time 
(noon)  a  group  of  friends  may  unexpectedly  enter,  and  a  new 
supply  of  pilau  must  be  served  up  quickly.  Families  that 
have  suffered  bereavement  diu"ing  the  preceding  year  do  not 
make  visits,  but  receive  them,  serving  to  their  guests  bitter 
coffee  and  omitting  all  sweetmeats. 

Noruz  is  a  pleasant  time  to  renew  old  acquaintances,  make 
new  ones,  and  to  visit  both  rich  and  poor  without  interfering 
with  their  business  engagements.  I  shall  give  an  account  of  the 
visits  made  during  one  Noruz  season,  since  they  afford  the  best 
opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  the  social  customs  of 
the  people.  According  to  a  custom  in  visiting  men  of  rank, 
we  sent  a  request  to  the  govern  or- general,  the  former  Amir-i- 
Nizam,  that  his  Excellency  might  appoint  a  convenient  time  to 
receive  us.  The  governor's  house,  in  a  group  of  government 
buildings,  was  built  in  semi-European  style,  with  windows  on 
all  sides  and  faced  with  red  brick.  He  had  two  large  recep- 
tion-rooms, one  furnished  in  Persian,  the  other  in  European 
style.  The  Persian  room  had  portieres  over  the  doors,  and 
was  carpeted  in  the  usual  manner,  with  a  large  center-piece, 
two  kefiarehs  or  side-strips,  and  a  kala  or  head-piece,  the  four 
rugs  neatly  covering  the  entire  floor.  The  kenarehs  and  kala 
were  of  soft  kecha  or  felt,  half  an  inch  thick,  and  the  color  of 
camel's  hair,  with  a  simple  figured  border.*  Over  these  was 
spread,  for  their  protection,  a  breadth  of  cotton  cloth,  called 
rti-farsh.  At  the  upper  corners  of  the  reception-room  were 
divans,  consisting  of  mattresses  and  pillows,  and  covered  with 
the  finest  Senna  rugs.  On  one  of  these  divans  the  governor 
sat  to  receive  Persian  visitors ;  the  other  was  reserved  for  men 

*  The  best  of  these  kechas  are  manufactured  at  Yezd  and  Hamadan.  A 
traveler  mentions  one  the  dimensions  of  which  were  one  hundred  and 
twenty  by  eighty  feet.  It  was  transported  from  Yezd  on  a  line  of  camels 
for  the  palace  of  the  minister  of  justice  at  Teheran. 


248  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

of  high  rank,  while  other  guests  sat  on  the  carpets  around  the 
sides  of  the  room. 

We  had  removed  our  galoshes  and  hats  on  being  ushered  in. 
The  governor,  in  stockinged  feet  and  with  hat  on,  received 
us  cordially,  rising  and  shaking  oiu"  hands.  To  his  "  Salaam 
alakum!  "  ("  Peace  to  you!  ")  we  responded,  "To  you  peace! 
May  your  Excellency's  feast  be  blessed!  "  He  rephed,  "  May 
your  favor  be  increased!  "  After  being  seated  on  chairs  we 
inquired  concerning  his  Excellency's  "  noble  condition."  He 
replied  in  the  customary  phrase,  "  Al  hamd  ul  Ullah! "  ("Praise 
God,  I  am  well!  ") ;  but  on  second  inquiry  he  declared  that 
he  was  feeling  ill,  and  most  of  his  conversation  in  the  midst  of 
tea-drinking  was  about  his  ailments.  He  ended  the  interview 
by  saying  that  he  had  a  peeshkesh  for  the  doctor,  which  proved 
to  be  ten  imperials. 

Afterward  we  called  on  the  beglar-begi  or  mayor.  He  is 
of  the  Dumbli  family,  which  have  ruled  in  Azerbijan  before  the 
Kajar  dynasty.  He  has  great  wealth,  being  lord  of  many  vil- 
lages. All  the  guests  in  the  saloon  rose  and  remained  standing 
while  he  led  us  into  a  room  furnished  with  tables  and  chairs. 
A  special  feature  of  the  room  was  the  great  number  of  gilded 
and  illuminated  firmans  and  honorary  degrees  from  the  shah, 
framed  and  hung  on  the  walls,  or  placed  in  the  niches.  Ac- 
cording to  custom,  tea  was  brought  in  in  tiny  glasses  having 
handles  of  silver,  and  placed  on  glass  saucers.  The  cup-bearer 
served  each  person  on  an  individual  waiter  of  silver,  and  in  the 
order  of  the  rank  of  each  one,  as  judged  from  the  position  of 
their  seats.  He  first  offered  tea  to  his  master,  but  he,  with  a 
wave  of  the  hand,  declined  to  be  served  until  after  his  guests. 
The  tea  was  piping  hot,  without  cream,  and  as  sweet  as  a  syrup. 
On  the  waiters  was  a  little  bottle  of  Shiraz  lemon-juice  and 
sliced  narajij  (grape-fruit)  for  flavoring  it.  After  a  time  the 
attendants  reappeared.  One  bore  a  salver  on  which  were  tiny 
coffee-cups  in  holders.    The  latter  resembled  in  shape  an  egg- 


House  Ducorations. 


SOCI/iL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  249 

cup.  They  are  sometimes  chinaware,  and  sometimes  Zenjan- 
silver  filigree,  of  exquisite  workmanship.  The  other  attendant 
bore  a  coffee-pot;  he  hfted  one  of  the  coffee-cups,  placed  it 
in  the  holder,  and  filled  it  about  two  thirds  full  of  very  thick, 
black,  sweet  coffee.* 

The  kakan  or  water-pipe  was  brought  in  and  passed  to  us. 
We  dechned  with  the  phrase,  "  It  is  not  our  custom."  The 
host  took  a  few  whiffs  and  passed  it  to  the  guests  in  the  saloon. 
Finally  we  said,  in  the  customary  form  of  adieu,  "Will  you 
command  our  dismissal  ?  "  He  rephed,  "  Do  you  withdraw 
your  graciousness?  "  If  the  host  wishes  to  shorten  the  visit 
he  can  hasten  these  courses. 

A  visit  to  the  kalantar,  the  chief  alderman,  showed  us  some 
different  phases  of  Persian  life.  An  hour's  ride  on  horseback 
brought  us  to  his  place  in  the  suburbs.  He  had  extensive 
grounds,  beautifully  laid  out  with  fountains  and  flower-beds 
and  shaded  avenues.  In  his  greenhouse  were  orange  and 
lemon  trees  bearing  fruit.  One  of  his  rooms  was  papered  with 
chromos,  another  with  cuts  from  the  illustrated  papers.  He 
had  a  large  household  of  retainers.  The  kalantar  was  fond 
of  rehgious  discussion  and  familiar  with  the  Bible.  He  had 
written  a  book  in  defense  of  Islam  against  Christianity.  His 
opinion  was  that  Paul  undermined  and  corrupted  the  religion 
of  Jesus.  He  found  in  the  prophecy  of  Habakkuk  of  the 
Holy  One  from  Mount  Paran,  who  drove  asunder  the  nations, 
a  prediction  of  Mohammed.  Conversation  on  rehgion  is 
habitual  among  the  Persians. 

Here  there  were  set  before  us  some  choice  sweetmeats. 
Among  the  favorite  confections  is  gaz.  It  is  made  from  the 
juice  of  the  tamarisk-tree  and  has  a  delicious  flavor,  which  is 

*  Sometimes  sherbets  are  substituted  for  the  tea  or  coffee.  These  are 
drinks  made  of  lemon,  plum,  cherry,  rose,  cucumber,  or  other  fruit-syrups. 
Simpler  forms  are  skanjabi,  made  of  vinegar  and  honey,  or  ayran,  a  kind 
of  buttermilk. 


250  PERSUN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

increased  by  being  mixed  with  pistachios.  Another  favorite  is 
fig-paste,  called  "  ease  of  the  throat."  This  is  variously  fla- 
vored and  colored.  Among  the  candies  popular  in  Persia  are 
sugared  burned  almond,  pomegranate  jelly  cut  in  little  squares, 
k/iu/va,  a  taffy  of  molasses  and  nuts,  rock-candy,  ^.nA  pesJimak, 
which  is  made  of  sugar  and  butter,  crystallized  like  snowflakes 
or  thistle-down,  and  formed  into  pyramids,  cones,  and  other 
shapes.  A  very  rich  pastry  sprinkled  with  sugar,  but  wathout 
fruit,  is  much  prized.  Their  cakes,  made  of  rice-iiour  and  nuts, 
with  sheep-tail  fat  and  saffron  flavor,  are  rarely  agreeable  to 
foreign  taste.  Year  by  year  confections  are  being  improved 
by  contact  with  Tiflis  and  Constantinople.  The  best  sweet- 
meats are  now  made  in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy,  and  some 
of  their  ladies  are  expert  in  the  art.  At  Noruz  and  other  fes- 
tivals great  khonchas  *  of  candies  are  sent  in  by  the  clients  of 
the  great,  and  the  center  of  the  parlor  is  occupied  by  a  large 
display  of  them.  It  has  lately  become  the  custom  to  rent  a 
large  amount  of  confections  for  an  occasion,  only  those  being 
paid  for  which  are  eaten,  and  the  rest  returned. 

These  visits,  together  with  others  to  mollas,  merchants,  and 
physicians,  gave  us  considerable  knowledge  of  the  life  of  well- 
to-do  Persians.  The  impression  was  gained  that  their  manner 
of  hving  is  very  comfortable.  Their  wealth  is  not  great,  but 
they  have  the  conveniences  and  luxuries  which  the  country 
affords,  or  which  they  think  it  necessary  to  import.  Their 
houses  are  neither  of  marble  nor  of  cut  stone,  nor  do  they  have 
many  of  the  charms  of  beautiful  architecture.  But  the  wealthy 
class  in  the  cities  have  pleasant  rooms,  excellent  food,  fruits 
and  flowers  in  abundance,  troops  of  servants  waiting  their 
every  beck  and  call,  stables  full  of  valuable  horses,  incomes 
easily  earned,  plenty  of  leisure  for  an  afternoon  siesta  and  for 

*  A  khoncha  is  a  wooden  tray,  about  two  feet  by  four,  which  is  carried 
on  a  man's  head  when  a  wedding-dowry  or  a  present  of  sweetmeats  is 
taken  through  the  streets. 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  251 

social  intercourse,  many  holidays  and  a  disposition  to  enjoy 
them ;  and  withal  they  have  no  reason  to  envy  the  far  more 
opulent  but  possibly  less  contented  plutocrats  who  under 
steam  pressure  and  with  lightning  rapidity  are  "buUing  and 
bearing  "  one  another  in  the  marts  of  civilization. 

New- Year's  calls  on  the  poor  of  Persia  revealed  a  striking 
contrast.  We  knocked  at  the  outer  door,  that  the  women 
might  have  a  chance  to  conceal  themselves.  Bending  low, 
we  stooped  down  and  passed  under  a  long  arched  way,  and 
entered  a  little  yard  with  mud-plastered  walls.  The  cahva- 
khaiia  or  hall  opened  into  a  half-underground  room,  in  one 
end  of  which  was  a  poorly  made  window,  covered  with  oiled 
paper,  its  cracks  being  similarly  pasted  over  to  keep  out  the 
wind.  Its  flopping,  ill-fitting  door  was  low,  while  the  sill  was 
very  high,  in  order  that  the  shoes  may  be  taken  off  in  the  hall 
and  not  obstruct  the  opening  and  shutting  of  the  door.  The 
rafters  overhead  were  unceiled.  The  furniture  consisted  of 
common  carpets  [g/telim),  a  mirror  brought  with  the  wedding- 
outfit,  a  copper  basin  and  ewer,  a  small  tea-urn  and  some 
glasses,  and  a  kalea?i  on  the  lower  niches.  On  the  upper 
niches  were  a  few  bottles,  and  on  the  once  whitened  walls 
had  been  pasted  some  cigarette-papers,  caricature  prints,  and 
verses  from  the  Koran.  The  host  greeted  us  with  a  hearty 
"  Welcome!  You  have  done  me  a  great  favor."  We  replied, 
"  May  your  festival  be  blessed,  may  your  house  be  blessed!" 
He  answered,  "  It  is  a  present  to  you."  The  other  guests  rose, 
placed  their  right  hands  first  on  their  hearts,  then  to  their  fore- 
heads, and  bowed  low.  We  knelt  on  our  knees  on  calico  cush- 
ions, the  weight  of  the  body  resting  on  the  heels.  The  host, 
though  his  circumstances  were  straitened,  was  bright  in  con- 
versation. A  small  boy  dressed  like  a  grown  man  entered,  and 
we  inquired,  "  Who  is  this  ?  "  "  He  is  your  slave,"  he  replied ; 
which  meant,  "  He  is  my  son."  A  dish  of  wheat  was  growing 
on  the  window-sill,  a  symbol  of  the  renewal  of  the  year.     A 


252  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

fish  was  swimming  in  a  pan,  which  called  forth  a  remark  from 
him  that  fish  always  look  toward  Mecca  at  Noruz.  He  placed 
before  us  a  few  candies,  some  boiled  eggs,  and  pickled  grapes. 
He  had  the  samovar  already  boiling,  and  sat  down  beside  it, 
washed  the  cups  and  saucers,  and  placed  tea  before  us.  We 
did  not  decline  to  drink,  for  the  poor  man  would  feel  aggrieved. 
He  honored  us  specially  by  almost  filling  our  tea-glasses  with 
sugar,  though  he  himself  sipped  his  tea  through  a  small  lump 
which  he  held  between  his  teeth  and  retained  to  sweeten  suc- 
ceeding sups.  What  does  a  poor  man  have  besides  the  things 
within  sight?  His  goods  consist  of  a  few  rude  dishes  of  native 
pottery,  a  jar  or  two  of  pickled  herbs  and  dried  vegetables,  a 
flour-bin,  some  copper  pots,  and  a  chest  of  clothing.  With  his 
wages  of  a  dime  a  day  as  a  laborer  or  servant  he  must  pro- 
vide for  his  Khadija  and  Ismiel,  Husain  and  Fatima.  He 
thanks  God  for  the  blessing  of  such  a  family ;  but  how  do  they 
live  on  such  a  pittance  ?  Most  of  it  goes  to  buy  bread,  which, 
with  some  salty  cheese  to  give  it  taste,  or  a  glass  of  weak  tea, 
constitutes  his  breakfast ;  his  luncheon  is  bread  and  sour  milk, 
garlic  or  onions  or  some  cheap  fruit ;  for  dinner  a  stew  of  meat 
and  vegetables,  highly  seasoned  with  red  peppers  and  onions 
— a  large  quantity  for  a  little  meat — makes  his  bread  palatable. 
Lack  of  employment  or  high  prices  reduce  him  to  bread  and 
water.  In  winter  a  few  shahis'  worth  of  charcoal  lasts  the 
family  a  long  while  under  the  hmsee. 

In  sleeping  rich  and  poor  alike  lie  on  the  floor.  The  bed- 
ding, which  consists  of  a  short  mattress,  a  round  pillow,  and 
coverlets,  is  folded  up  and  placed  in  a  recess  by  day.  In  sum- 
mer many  of  the  people  sleep  on  the  roofs,  rising  when  the 
sun  disturbs  them. 

The  social  habit,  which  is  so  universally  exemplified  at 
Noruz,  is  a  striking  trait  of  the  Persian  character.  One  of  the 
social  institutions  of  great  attraction  is  the  tea-house.  The 
tea-houses  are  of  various  grades.     Some  are  rudely  furnished. 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  253 

with  merely  a  raised  platform  which  surrounds  the  sides  of  the 
room,  and  is  covered  with  matting  or  carpet.  Others  have  an 
air  of  comfort  imparted  to  them  by  divans,  mirrors,  chande- 
liers, etc.  With  tea  at  half  a  cent  a  glass,  and  one  pipeful  of 
tobacco  sufficing  for  a  crowd,  it  is  no  wonder  loafers  seek  them 
and  business  men  make  appointments  in  them.  The  common 
pipe,  cigarettes,  and  the  kalean  or  water-pipe  are  much  used. 
In  the  latter  the  smoke  passes  through  the  water  and  is  drawn 
into  the  lungs.  Lemon-juice  and  other  flavors  are  sometimes 
mixed  with  the  water. 

The  ordinary  kalean  is  about  two  feet  high.  It  consists  of 
a  vase  capable  of  holding  about  a  quart  of  water,  a  top  about 
the  size  of  a  goblet,  in  which  biuning  charcoal  and  dampened 
tobacco  are  placed,  a  wooden  tube  which  supports  the  top  on 
the  vase,  and  a  mouthpiece  or  stem  about  twenty  inches  long. 
The  support  and  stem  are  turned  on  the  lathe,  in  various  orna- 
mental designs.  The  vase  and  bowl  are  of  glass,  stone,  china, 
brass,  or  silver,  and  are  set  with  turquoises  or  other  jewels,  and 
carved,  enameled,  and  decorated  with  pictures  of  the  shah, 
flowers,  and  similar  objects. 

Another  place  of  social  resort  and  gossip  is  the  bath-house. 
Custom  and  religion  require  frequent  ablutions.  For  the  men, 
whose  dyeing  of  the  hair  and  nails  with  henna,  scraping  the 
flesh  with  tufa,  etc.,  the  bath  is  a  frequent  necessity,  and  no 
less  so  for  the  women,  whose  hair-dressing,  dyeing  of  eyelashes, 
etc.,  require  so  much  time  and  attention.  The  bath-houses 
are  below  the  level  of  the  street,  so  as  to  be  supplied  with  water. 
The  arched  domes  are  hghted  through  slabs  of  alabaster.  One 
may  know  when  he  is  near  the  bath-house  by  the  long  rows 
of  colored  towels  hung  on  the  street  walls.  The  fuel  used  is 
weeds,  thorn-bushes,  straw,  dried  manure,  bones,  carcasses,  or 
any  other  rubbish,  and  the  odor  inside  and  out  is  sometimes 
very  offensive.  The  atmosphere  of  the  vaulted  room  is  very 
hot,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Turkish  bath.     The  water  in  the 


254  PERSMN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

plunge-tank  is  changed  only  once  in  two  or  three  months,  and 
is  consequently  a  prolific  breeder  of  disease. 

The  Persian  has  few  kinds  of  amusement.  His  theater  is 
the  "  Takia  "  or  passion-play  of  Muharram ;  his  lyceum  lec- 
turers are  the  dervishes  on  the  street  corner,  and  the  poets  and 
marseyakhan  in  the  residences  of  the  rich.  Singers,  musicians, 
and  dancers  are  adjuncts  of  weddings  and  other  feasts.  The 
Persian  gentleman  does  not  dance.  A  prince,  seeing  some 
European  noblemen  dancing,  expressed  his  surprise,  saying, 
"  Why  do  you  exert  yourselves  so  much  ?  In  Persia  we  hire 
people  to  dance  for  us."  No  violent  games  of  ball  and  no 
severe  gymnastics  are  in  vogue,  except  for  the  peJilavaiis  or 
wrestlers.  Horse-racing  and  hunting  are  favorite  amusements  ; 
chess,  checkers,  and  backgammon  are  old  and  standard  games. 
Cards  are  being  introduced  throughout  the  entire  country, 
and  gambling  is  unhappily  prevalent. 

The  custom  of  giving  presents  is  universal.  A  person  re- 
turning home  brings  a  sogat  or  present  to  each  of  his  relatives 
and  friends.  The  custom  is  so  binding  that  some  men  unwill- 
ingly go  in  debt  to  avoid  a  breach  of  it,  and  others  stay  away 
from  home  from  inability  to  do  what  is  expected  of  them. 
Gifts  of  dainties  from  the  table,  of  the  first-fruits  from  the 
orchard,  and  of  loaves  of  fresh  bread  are  sent  from  friend  to 
friend.  Formal  tokens  of  commendation  from  a  superior  are 
greatly  prized.  The  shah  yearly  sends  a  khallat  or  robe  of 
honor  to  each  governor  on  the  renewal  of  his  appointment. 
Its  bearer  is  an  important  official.  He  is  met  by  the  governor 
at  a  villa  called  kha/lat-pas/iati,  where  the  latter  puts  on  his 
robe.  Its  style  and  elegance  indicate  the  degree  of  apprecia- 
tion intended  to  be  shown.  It  is  a  high  honor  for  a  royal 
person  to  give  another  a  robe  which  he  himself  has  w^om. 
When  the  crown  prince  wished  to  show  his  appreciation  of 
Dr.  Holmes  by  presenting  him  with  a  robe  of  honor,  he  first 
wore  it  himself  a  few  days. 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  255 

Certain  other  presents  may  be  regarded  as  taxes.  Such  are 
the  large  amounts  sent  by  the  governors  to  the  shah  at  Noruz. 
Of  a  similar  nature  are  those  sent  to  local  officials  by  subjects 
and  by  foreign  residents,  as  a  recognition  of  obligation  for  civil 
protection.  On  the  receipt  of  such  a  gift  it  is  customary  to 
give  the  bearer  a  sum  of  money,  showing  appreciation  of  the 
gift  and  its  sender.  Fees,  tips,  and  anams  are  very  common. 
Peeshkesh  is  a  gift  to  a  superior,  and  is  generally  made  with 
the  idea  of  procuring  an  equivalent  in  cash,  favor,  or  influence. 
Bakshish  is  a  freewill  oflFering  to  an  inferior. 

The  social  life  of  men  outside  of  their  own  harems  is  in  a 
sphere  separated  from  women,  and  the  account  of  their  social 
life  as  hitherto  presented  has  been  confined  to  the  relations  of 
men.  I  will  now  turn  to  woman  and  her  relations  in  the 
family  life. 

The  most  striking  fact  in  the  condition  of  woman  in  Persia 
is  her  seclusion.  Her  dwelhng  is  shut  in  from  the  street  and 
the  view  of  the  neighbors  by  high  mud-walls.  In  the  houses 
of  the  rich  the  privacy  is  made  more  complete  by  having  two 
apartments,  the  berun  and  the  andavoJt.  The  latter  is  reserved 
exclusively  for  the  women  and  children,  and  is  also  called  the 
harem  or  forbidden  place.  Eunuchs  act  as  guardians  and 
stewards  of  this  family.  The  wife  never  sits  at  a  feast  with 
her  husband's  guests,  nor  receives  male  visitors.  The  latter 
must  not  even  inquire  about  her  health,  or  refer  to  her.  The 
husband,  if  occasion  calls  for  it,  speaks  of  her  as  "the  mother 
of  Ismiel"  or  "of  Hasan,"  or  uses  some  other  circumlocution. 
Another  man  may  refer  to  her  as  "the  mother  of  Zebedee's 
children."  If  a  man  enters  the  gate  unannounced  he  must  cry, 
"Women,  away!  "  that  they  may  have  time  to  conceal  them- 
selves. It  is  a  misdemeanor  for  one  to  open  a  window  over- 
looking his  neighbor's  yard.  A  Mussulman  requested  me  to 
raise  the  wall  surrounding  the  school,  because  the  boys  could 
look  from  the  roof  upon  his  women.     A  pigeon-trainer  was 


256  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

accustomed  to  go  on  his  roof  to  follow  the  birds,  and  so  over- 
looked his  neighbor's  yard.  He  was  warned  not  to  do  so,  and 
on  repeating  the  offense  was  shot  dead.  So  carefully  do  they 
guard  their  Bathshebas  from  the  sight  of  any  David. 

The  street  costume  for  woman  is  a  contrivance  for  main- 
taining her  seclusion  even  when  she  is  out  of  the  harem.  It 
consists  of  shelwar,  chudder,  and  veil.  The  shelwar  is  a  com- 
bination of  very  full  trousers  and  stockings,  fitting  tightly  on 
the  feet,  and  gathered  at  the  ankles.  The  chudder  is  two  yards 
square,  of  cloth,  and  is  put  on  over  the  head  and  envelops 
the  whole  person.  The  veil  is  of  muslin  or  linen,  and  com- 
pletely conceals  the  face.  Before  the  eyes  is  a  lace-work, 
through  which  a  woman  can  see  her  way,  but  not  even  a  glance 
of  her  eye  can  be  seen.  This  street  costume  is  made  of  only  two 
or  three  fabrics,  either  blue,  black,  or  barred ;  so  that  among 
the  many  uniformly  dressed  women  a  man  could  not  recognize 
any  one  of  his  own  wives.  As  the  women  glide  through  the 
streets  they  lift  their  veils  to  get  a  fresh  breeze  or  to  see  the 
pitfalls,  but  if  a  man  appears  unexpectedly  the  veils  go  down 
with  a  jerk.  If  a  lady  of  high  degree  is  riding  through  the 
streets  an  attendant  goes  before  and  commands,  "  Men,  turn 
your  eyes  away!  "  Common  mortals  should  not  look  upon 
the  shadow  of  a  princess.  Even  old  hags  who  are  washing 
clothes  by  the  watercourses,  and  beating  them  upon  the  stones, 
attempt  to  arrange  their  veils  and  chudders  so  as  to  conceal 
their  features.  The  wife  of  a  Persian  official  who  had  been 
brought  from  Constantinople,  and  who  was  used  to  the  freer 
ways  of  that  city,  went  out  in  Tabriz  in  her  foreign  costume. 
The  mujtehid  sent  his  servants  to  warn  her  to  cease  to  do  so 
or  she  would  be  beaten.  Even  young  girls  must  put  on  this 
street  costume.  Concealment  is  thus  complete  only  in  the 
cities.  In  the  villages  women  are  allowed  more  liberty,  and 
among  the  Kurds  and  wandering  tribes  a  still  greater  degree 
of  freedom  is  accorded  them.     Liberty  among  the  nomads  is 


SOCML  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  257 

associated  with  greater  purity  and  less  scandal.  Indeed,  the 
disguise  of  the  city  dress  gives  faciHties  for  secret  intrigues. 
The  Turks  and  Arabs  require  no  such  absolute  concealment 
of  the  countenance,  nor  does  the  law  of  Islam  command  it. 

A  wife  is  in  subjection  to  her  husband — a  subjection  so  ab- 
ject that  she  does  not  even  dream  of  the  possession  of  those 
rights  which  have  been  and  are  being  granted  to  women  in 
Christian  lands.  She  occupies  the  position  of  slave  to  man's 
pleasure  and  comfort,  and  aspires  to  nothing  more.  She  does 
not  sit  down  to  eat  with  her  husband,  but  eats  after  waiting 
on  him.  If  perchance  she  accompanies  him  on  the  street,  she 
walks  some  distance  behind  him.  Wife -beating  is  very  com- 
mon, and  is  allowed  by  law  and  custom.  Despising  his  wife 
as  a  woman,  and  having  inbred  ideas  of  her  inferiority,  the  hus- 
band corrects  her  and  punishes  her  as  a  child.  But  custom 
does  not  make  such  treatment  pleasant.  A  Persian  woman  said 
to  a  foreign  lady,  "  You  are  not  married.  Then  happy  are 
you,  for  you  have  no  one  to  beat  you."  In  a  village  where 
some  men  had  gathered  around  me,  and  the  women,  all  chat- 
tering at  once,  were  making  a  great  hubbub  around  Mrs.  Wil- 
son, a  man  attacked  the  women  and  struck  them  with  his  cane, 
saying,  "  Get  away ;  you  are  making  such  a  noise  you  confuse 
our  conversation.  You  can't  understand  anything,  anyway." 
If  one  protests  against  the  beating  of  women  as  a  barbarous 
practice  the  reply  is,  "  How  else  shall  we  rule  them?  "  Even 
when  a  Persian  gentleman  would  by  instinctive  feeling  be 
polite  to  a  lady,  he  is  restrained  by  the  thought  of  his  own  dig- 
nity, saying,  "  Oh,  she  is  only  a  woman ;  it  won't  do  to  show 
respect  to  her." 

We  can  readily  imagine  that  women  thus  secluded,  and  at 
the  same  time  wilful  and  ignorant,  with  only  the  physical  life 
developed,  might  make  it  difficult  for  the  men  to  manage 
them  without  resorting  to  physical  force.  The  tales  of  the 
East  show  us  that  women,  even  under  Islam,  assert  themselves 


258  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

and  repay  the  lords  of  creation  in  their  own  coin.     Such  is  the 
lesson  of  the  following  tale : 

"  There  was  a  man  who  had  a  wife  who  was  the  plague  of  his 
life.  At  last,  vexed  beyond  endurance,  he  put  her  in  a  deep 
well,  determined  to  leave  her  to  her  fate.  Three  days  after- 
ward he  repented  and  let  down  a  rope  to  release  her.  In  lieu 
of  her  an  immense  dragon  came  out.  Instead  of  devouring 
the  man  it  overwhelmed  him  with  thanks  and  promises  of  favor 
for  delivering  it  from  such  terrible  company.  To  recompense 
him,  the  dragon  entered  into  a  plot  that  the  woman  should  re- 
main in  the  well,  but  it  would  wind  itself  aroimd  the  daughter 
of  the  king,  and  when  no  astrologer  or  charmer  could  release 
her,  the  man  should  come,  and  at  his  bidding  it  would  leave, 
and  the  king  would  give  him  a  large  reward.  But  one  condi- 
tion was  laid  down  :  that  if  ever  the  dragon  wound  itself  around 
any  other  princess,  the  man  should  not  molest  it,  on  pain  of 
death.  The  plot  was  carried  out ;  at  the  man's  bidding  the 
dragon  fled,  freeing  the  princess,  who  was  given  in  marriage  to 
her  deliverer,  with  an  abundant  dowry.  But  soon  the  dragon 
captured  a  Frank  princess.  Then  the  king  of  Frankistan,  hav- 
ing heard  of  the  fame  of  this  man,  sent  an  embassy  to  Persia 
requesting  that  he  be  sent  to  her  relief.  After  many  excuses 
and  much  delay,  the  man,  at  the  king's  command,  departed 
for  Frankistan,  filled  with  fear  as  to  what  might  be  the  result 
if  he  broke  his  contract  with  the  dragon.  On  the  way,  how- 
ever, he  hit  upon  an  expedient.  So,  having  reached  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Frank  princess,  he  said  to  the  dragon,  '  I  have 
not  come  to  release  the  princess,  but  only  to  tell  you  that  that 
woman  has  got  out  of  the  well  and  is  coming  to  attack  you  as 
quickly  as  possible.'  The  dragon  had  such  a  vivid  recollec- 
tion of  its  former  experiences  that  it  fled  in  haste.  It  knew 
that  it  was  '  better  to  dwell  in  a  wilderness  than  with  a  con- 
tentious and  angry  woman.' " 


SOCI/IL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  259 

The  limitation  of  woman's  occupation  in  Persia  is  naiTow, 
comprising  little  beyond  the  care  of  children,  housekeeping,  and 
domestic  service,  weaving  of  carpets  and  some  other  fabrics. 
What  shall  the  large  class  of  widows  do  for  their  support? 
Unless  sons  have  grown  up  to  support  them  they  can  find  few 
ways  of  livehhood  besides  becoming  concubines.  Some  old 
women  can  find  employment  in  baking  and  washing  from 
house  to  house,  while  others  take  their  places  on  the  street  to 
beg,  perhaps  with  a  child  in  their  arms. 

The  occupation  of  wealthy  ladies  is  seen  in  the  following 
account  of  a  visit  to  some  of  them :  "  We  were  served  to  a 
succession  of  sweetmeats,  sherbets,  tea,  and  coffee.  We  re- 
fused only  the  water-pipe,  and  the  ladies  condoled  with  us  on 
our  loss,  for  it  is  their  chief  amusement.  We  ask  how  they 
spend  their  time.  They  answer,  half  sorrowfully, '  We  do  noth- 
ing but  sleep,  eat,  and  wonder  what  we  will  have  for  the  next 
meal.'  Embroidery  and  sewing  they  have  some  taste  for, 
and  they  confessed  to  some  skill  in  making  certain  dainties." 
The  women,  with  few  exceptions,  are  unable  to  read.  Their 
capacities  are  undeveloped,  their  faculties  dull  from  disuse. 
Their  inattentive  minds  and  unpractised  memories  require  con- 
stant repetition  on  the  part  of  an  instructor.  Those  who  are 
natiurally  bright  are  poorly  informed.  They  are  classed  with 
the  children  under  the  one  word  vshaklar,  and  the  proverb 
has  currency,  "  Their  hair  is  long,  their  wit  is  short." 

There  has  of  late  been  some  advance  in  the  education  of 
women.  The  wives  of  some  enhghtened  officials  and  mollas 
can  read.  Some  are  learning  music  and  other  accomplish- 
ments. Babism  is  said  to  desire  women  to  throw  aside  their 
veils  and  appear  in  pubhc.  Kourret-it-Ayn  ("  Consolation  of 
the  Eyes  "),  a  beautiful  and  accomplished  woman,  imperson- 
ated this  idea.  She  met  the  mollas  in  open  controversy,  and 
by  the  charms  of  her  person  and  the  eloquence  of  her  address 


260  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

greatly  assisted  her  cause.  She  was  killed,  with  other  Babis, 
at  Teheran.  The  styles  of  female  attire  may  be  seen  by  any 
traveler  in  the  bazaars. 

The  indoor  dress  consists  of  a  number  of  full  divided  skirts, 
or  bloomers,  reaching  to  the  knees,  and,  according  to  the  new 
style,  plain  black  or  white  pantaloons.  The  sack  or  kalija  is 
loose-fitting,  often  not  buttoned  in  front,  with  very  long  sleeves, 
which  are  fastened  to  the  wrists  with  many  loops  and  knots. 
Sometimes  there  is  a  cuff,  elaborately  trimmed.  The  head  is 
covered  with  a  square  of  cloth,  tied  under  the  chin,  conceal- 
ing the  ears  and  falling  down  on  the  shoulders.  The  common 
head-dress  of  the  poorer  class  is  muslin  or  caHco,  the  skirts  are 
of  the  latter  material,  and  the  sack  of  woolen  goods.  Many 
of  the  poor  even  have,  as  a  part  of  their  wedding-outfit,  a  kalija 
or  Kerman  shawl,  which,  with  no  change  of  style,  lasts  for  a 
lifetime.  The  rich  ladies  dehght  in  gorgeous-colored  silks, 
satins,  and  velvets,  often  inwrought  with  gold  or  silver  thread, 
or  else  elaborately  embroidered.  In  Teheran  there  are  French 
dressmakers  to  invent  beautiful  costumes. 

The  shoes  are  sandals,  usually  of  red  or  yellow  sheepskin, 
with  pointed,  turned-up  toes,  and  an  iron  plate  on  the  heel. 
In  walking  the  heels  flop  and  clatter,  and  the  step  is  with  a 
gliding  motion,  to  prevent  the  shoes  from  slipping  off. 

The  women  are  brunettes,  of  medium  stature.  Heavy  eye- 
brows and  a  high  forehead  are  much  admired.  The  head- 
dress is  adapted  to  the  latter.  The  eyebrows  are  painted 
black  and  extended  so  as  to  meet.  The  hair  is  straight ;  it  is 
banged  and  hangs  down  the  back  in  many  small  plaits,  reach- 
ing sometimes  to  the  ground.  To  the  ends  are  attached  rib- 
bons, with  jewels,  coins,  or  gold  or  silver  bangles.  Long  hair 
is  greatly  prized,  and  any  lack  of  it  is  supplied  by  the  arti- 
ficial article.  The  hair  is  washed  and  combed  at  the  pubHc 
bath,  and  receives  no  further  attention  until  the  next  visit  to 
that  popular  institution.    The  Persian  woman  deHghts  in  oma- 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  261 

ments.  On  her  head  she  wears  a  string  of  pearls,  or  bangles 
of  gold  and  silver  coin.  Amulets,  bracelets,  necklaces,  ear- 
rings, finger-rings,  and  even  nose-rings  are  worn.  Many  of 
them  are  of  great  value  and  beauty.  A  moon-shaped  face  and 
stout  figvu-e  are  most  admired.  Fatness  is  in  favor.  One 
woman  asked  for  medicine  to  make  her  fat.  She  was  answered, 
"  Why,  your  figure  is  good."  She  replied,  "  No  ;  my  husband 
threatens  to  divorce  me  because  I  am  not  fat." 

A  Persian  woman's  idea  of  life  centers  in  and  is  bounded 
by  her  family.  The  girl  looks  forward  to  marriage  as  her  sole 
destiny.  There  is  no  phrase  in  the  native  tongue  corresponding 
to  "  old  maid."  To  remain  unwedded  seems  to  a  Persian  woman 
a  sin,  a  thwarting  of  the  divine  purpose  of  her  nature.  She 
is  intensely  domestic.  Barrenness  is  considered  the  greatest 
curse.  About  the  only  subject  on  which  a  woman  will  venture 
to  address  a  stranger  traveling  in  the  country  is  with  a  request 
for  some  medicine,  or  a  written  prayer,  to  relieve  her  barren- 
ness. The  fashionable  but  unnatural  desire  to  limit  offspring 
does  not  exist  among  them.  But  while  the  birth  of  a  son  is  to 
the  mother  the  greatest  blessing,  the  birth  of  a  daughter  is  an 
occasion  of  sorrow.  There  is  no  feasting,  no  tea-drinking,  no 
joyous  congratulation,  as  in  the  case  of  a  son.  Of  the  coming 
of  a  girl  they  will  remark,  "  She  is  the  gift  of  God — we  must 
be  resigned  to  his  will."  One  reason  for  this  feeling  is  that  a 
daughter  will  be  lost  by  marriage,  while  a  son  will  be  the  stay 
and  support  of  the  parents  in  their  old  age,  and  his  wife  will 
become  their  servant. 

The  parents  of  a  girl  largely  determine  when  and  to  whom 
she  shall  be  married.  They  may  betroth  her  in  infancy.  One 
writes  :  "  There  is  a  place  upon  the  Kurdish  Mountains  where 
they  sell  the  girls  at  birth,  the  family  of  the  bridegroom  tak- 
ing the  girl  to  bring  up.  I  saw  a  bride  of  seven  years  whose 
parents  had  sent  her  to  Urumia  from  Tabriz."  A  mature  girl 
may  be  married  without  having  seen  her  future  husband.     In 


262  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

this  particular,  however,  the  young  man's  position  is  even 
worse.  The  girl  can  see  him  as  he  goes  about  in  public,  if 
they  live  in  the  same  place ;  but  the  man  must  rely  on  the 
reports  of  his  mother  or  female  relatives.  Two  men  were 
quizzed  at  random  one  day  about  their  marriages.  One  said 
he  had  never  seen  his  wife  before  the  wedding.  His  parents 
arranged  the  affair  with  her  parents,  who  lived  in  another 
town.  He  was  greatly  chagrined,  when  she  was  brought,  to 
find  her  only  seven  years  of  age.  After  a  while  he  sent  her 
home.  The  other  said  that  special  favor  was  shown  him. 
He  was  allowed  to  conceal  himself  in  the  house  and  to  look 
out  of  a  window  at  her  while  she  was  at  work  with  her  mother 
in  the  yard.  He  was  satisfied  with  her.  Often  the  husband 
sees  his  bride's  face  for  the  first  time  looking  over  her  shoul- 
der into  a  mirror,  which  is  a  part  of  the  bridal  outfit.  The 
man,  if  deceived  or  disappointed,  can  easily  divorce  his  wife. 
What  is  the  remedy  of  the  girl  ?  According  to  law  she  can- 
not be  compelled  to  marry  without  giving  consent.  If  she 
says  "  No,"  even  at  the  ceremony,  the  marriage  cannot  pro- 
ceed. But  she  can  rarely  exercise  this  veto,  and  is  often  mar- 
ried against  her  will.  A  girl  thus  forced  into  an  unhappy 
marriage  acted  like  a  lunatic  and  gave  great  anxiety  to  her 
mother-in-law.  Finally  a  foreigner  supposed  to  have  some  ac- 
quaintance with  medicine  came  that  way.  The  case  was  nar- 
rated to  him,  and  he  was  appealed  to  for  a  remedy  for  her 
sickness.  He  asked  to  see  her  alone.  She  frankly  confessed 
to  him  that  she  was  feigning  madness  because  she  had  been 
married  against  her  will,  and  she  wished  to  be  sent  home.  This 
ruse  was  played  by  the  princess  of  Bengal,  in  the  "Arabian 
Nights,"  when  she  wished  to  avoid  marriage  with  the  sultan 
of  Cashmere. 

The  law  of  Islam  allows  the  faithful  Mohammedan  four  law- 
ful wives  and  as  many  slave-women  or  concubines  "  as  his  right 
hand  possesses."    Full  marriage  is  legalized  before  a  moUa,  who 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  263 

writes  a  contract,  which  is  certified  by  two  male  witnesses,  or 
by  one  man  and  two  women.  This  contract  is  called  kabin. 
In  it  is  stated  the  amount  of  her  dowry,  to  be  given  in  case 
of  divorce.  The  necessity  of  paying  this  sum  is  a  restraint  on 
divorce.  The  secondary  contract  is  for  concubines,  and  is 
called  segah.  A  third  kind  of  contract  legalizes,  and  in  their 
eyes  hallows,  temporary  concubinage.  The  latter  is  called 
fnutaa,  and  is  contracted  before  a  molla  for  a  definite  time, 
long  or  short,  and  with  stipulated  wages.  This  perverts  con- 
science and  gives  license  and  the  sanction  of  religion  to  sin. 
For  example,  in  the  rice-fields  of  Mezanderan  a  man  engages 
as  concubines  for  the  season  as  many  women  as  are  required 
to  harvest  his  crops,  abandons  them  during  the  winter,  and 
the  next  year  contracts  with  the  same  or  different  ones,  as  the 
case  may  be.  For  the  legality  of  mutaa  they  quote  the  tradi- 
tion that  Mohammed  gave  such  a  license  to  his  soldiers  when 
going  on  a  campaign. 

One  would  suppose  that  the  laws  gave  abundant  scope  to 
the  lusts  of  men ;  but  Persians  do  not  regard  their  harems  as 
secure  without  many  safeguards.  The  penalty  of  adultery  is 
death  for  the  wife.  Popular  feeling  against  it  is  strong.  A 
Persian  narrates  that  a  certain  khan  had  conceived  a  passion 
for  a  woman  and  sent  to  take  her.  "  Her  husband,  aware  of 
it,  collected  his  friends,  attacked  the  khan's  house,  looted  it, 
dishonored  his  person,  and  then  blackened  his  face,  put  a 
paper  cap  on  him,  mounted  him  on  a  bare-backed  ass,  and  ex- 
pelled him  from  the  city." 

Polygamy  does  not  lack  defenders  among  those  who  practise 
it.  A  Mussulman  who  was  asked  what  he  thought  of  polygamy 
replied,  "  It  is  like  eating ;  you  do  not  confine  yourself  to  one 
kind  of  food,  but  set  several  kinds  on  the  table."  Another 
Mussulman  answered  him,  "  But  if  the  different  kinds  of  food 
should  begin  to  fight  and  tear  up  the  table-cloth,  what  would 
you  think  ?  "    The  following  quotation,  translated  by  "  Dacian," 


264  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

of  Constantinople,  expresses  the  opinion  of  a  celebrated  Mo- 
hammedan apologist  who  is  occupied  in  writing  a  commentary 
on  the  Koran : 

"  Glory  to  God  a  thousand  times  that  I  am  an  adherent  of 
a  religion  which  draws  a  wall  about  no  section  of  my  hberty, 
and  imposes  upon  me  no  bondage  in  the  matter  of  my  desire. 
I  take  a  woman  to  wife.  She  is  of  medium  height.  If  my 
whim  inclines  to  tall  ones  I  get  one  of  that  sort  too.  After- 
ward, if  I  hke,  I  get  one  of  the  fat  sort.  Besides  these,  I  may, 
if  I  choose,  pick  out  one  or  more  of  some  other  style  also. 
All  these  I  may  have  for  wives  for  myself  alone.  If  I  tire  of 
any  one  of  them,  and  she  of  me,  and  we  agree  on  both  sides,  we 
can  separate.  She  then  can  suit  herself  exactly  in  choosing 
another  man,  and  I  can  pick  out  another  woman.  Thanks 
be  to  God  I  am  not  a  Christian,  that  I  should  be  bound  as  a 
slave  to  one  woman,  or  any  woman  be  bound  to  me!  Do  you 
want  to  hear  more  ?  It  makes  the  Enghsh  mad  to  hear  it, 
but  I  am  a  bigoted  Turk  and  do  not  care  a  fig  for  the  Enghsh. 
Besides  all  these,  I  can  get  myself  just  as  many  fine  slave-girls 
as  I  wish.  In  fact,  whatever  my  whim  calls  for  I  am  free  to 
have.  But  my  religion  does  not  command  me  to  do  all  these 
things.  The  question  whether  I  will  mate  with  a  single  woman 
and  be  companion  to  her  alone,  it  hands  over  to  my  generos- 
ity. Ah,  it  is  a  beautiful  religion.  It  is  a  religion  which  trusts 
to  my  generosity.  It  does  not  judge  me  to  be  without  feel- 
ing, and  therefore  to  be  fit  only  to  be  loaded  with  the  fetters 
of  bondage." 

It  is  due,  however,  to  many  Mohammedans  to  say  that  they 
are  not  as  licentious  as  their  law  allows  them  to  be.  Many  of 
them,  from  preference,  have  only  one  wife.  Others  take  a 
second  wife  only  when  the  first  is  childless.  A  man  who  mar- 
ries a  new  wife  every  year — for  such  there  are — is  despised 
even  by  his  co-religionists. 

Divorce  is  at  the  option  of  the  husband,  for  any  reason  or 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  265 

without  reason.  The  cause  may  be  the  sickness,  blindness,  or 
barrenness  of  the  wife,  or  the  anger,  passion,  or  any  whim  or 
fancy  of  the  husband.  Sometimes  a  new  wife  demands  that 
all  the  old  ones  shall  be  sent  away.  The  ambition  to  marry 
a  princess  leads  to  the  same  result,  as  a  man  of  inferior  rank 
cannot  have  other  wives  as  companions  of  a  princess.  The 
divorced  wife  takes  possession  of  the  girls,  and  the  husband  of 
the  boys.  If  a  woman  wishes  to  leave  her  husband  she  can 
do  so  by  going  to  the  gazi  and  turning  up  her  slipper.  This 
remedy  is  rarely  resorted  to,  as  she  must  go  out  penniless.  She 
prefers  to  provoke  her  husband  beyond  measure,  that  he  may 
send  her  away  with  a  dowry.  In  a  well-known  case  a  wealthy 
man  paid  large  damages  to  release  his  daughter  from  an  un- 
happy marriage. 

If  a  man  in  a  fit  of  anger  says  to  his  wife,  "You  are 
divorced,"  divorce  is  not  accomplished  unless  he  repeat  the 
words  three  times.  He  can  recall  a  divorced  wife  without 
further  ceremony  unless  he  has  fully  divorced  her  the  third 
time.  In  that  case  he  cannot  take  her  back  unless  she  has 
meanwhile  been  married  to  another  man.  Mohammed  Khuda 
Banda,  Mongol  shah  of  Sultanieh,  had  a  beautiful  wife,  of 
whom  he  was  very  fond.  He  had  already  divorced  her  the 
second  time  and  received  her  back.  In  another  hour  of  anger 
he  banished  her  the  third  time.  On  coming  to  himself  he 
sought  for  some  excuse  or  authority  for  relaxing  the  law. 
For  this  purpose  he  called  together  the  mollas  of  the  province, 
to  the  number  of  seventy-eight ;  but  not  one  was  found  of  the 
Sunnis  who  would  change  the  interpretation.  At  last  he  heard 
of  one  who  was  of  a  contrary  opinion.  Being  summoned,  he 
interpreted  the  law  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  shah,  se- 
cured his  favor,  and  converted  the  dynasty  to  Shiahism. 

These  twin  curses,  polygamy  and  loose  divorce,  are  disas- 
trous to  family  life.  Polygamy  brings  untold  misery.  On 
her  rival's  coming,  the  former  wife  may  at  first  try  to  endure 


266  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

her  lot.  Her  better  nature  may  strive  for  the  mastery,  and 
she  may  come,  as  one  did,  and  request  that  a  prayer  be  writ- 
ten for  her,  "  that  she  may  not  hate  her  rival."  But  abuse  and 
apprehension  of  divorce  develop  all  the  baser  qualities  of  her 
nature.  She  pilfers  her  husband's  property,  laying  up  in  store 
against  the  day  of  her  departure.  This  gives  rise  to  the  prov- 
erb, "A  man's  worst  enemy  is  his  wife."  Full  of  jealousy, 
she  poisons  her  rival  or  chokes  the  rival's  child.  On  a  certain 
occasion  I  asked  a  number  of  Mohammedans  how  great  a  per- 
centage of  wives  would  use  foul  play  with  the  other  wives  and 
their  children.  They  gave  the  shocking  estimate  that  ninety 
or  one  hundred  per  cent,  would  do  so.  To  spite  her  husband 
the  first  wife  may  commit  adultery,  so  that  they  say,  "  The  dog 
is  faithful,  the  woman  never."  And,  with  some  reason,  her 
heart  is  a  whirlpool  of  bitter  passion,  and  she  makes  the  house 
a  bedlam.  Let  us  hear  the  testimony  of  a  Tabriz  molla  on 
this  point,  given  in  a  discourse  in  a  mosque.  "  They  tell  us," 
said  he,  "  that  there  are  dragons  and  scorpions  in  hell.  I  am 
not  afraid  of  them.  I  have  a  worse  hell  on  earth.  My  two 
wives,  with  their  jealousies,  quarrelings,  their  demands  for 
dress,  etc.,  give  me  no  peace.  I  could  well  leave  them  for 
other  torments."  So,  smarting  in  the  fires  he  has  kindled  for 
himself,  he  pays  the  pittance  of  contract-money  and  turns  the 
wife  loose  to  misfortune  and  that  which  is  worse.  The  woman 
in  her  trouble  exclaims,  "  When  the  gates  of  hell  are  opened 
the  Mussulman  men  will  go  in  first."  No  wonder  that  she  con- 
trasts her  lot  with  that  of  the  Christian  wife  and  mother,  and 
says,  as  one  did,  "  Your  Prophet  did  well  for  your  women ; 
ours  did  not.  I  shall  have  words  with  our  Prophet,  when  I 
see  him  in  the  next  world,  for  giving  men  permission  to  have 
a  plurality  of  wives."  "  I  am  the  twentieth  wife,"  said  one. 
"  Some  have  died  and  some  have  been  divorced."  Even  the 
paradise  set  before  her  is  a  sensual  one,  in  which  she  will  find 
a  place  subordinate  to  the  houris,  the  thought  of  which  must 


Persian  Girl. 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  267 

fill  her  heart,  not  with  joy,  but  with  jealousy.  Yet  there  is 
much  true  domestic  happiness  in  Persia.  Though  mated 
unseen,  they  not  infrequently  are  well  suited  to  each  other, 
and  when  drawn  nearer  by  the  common  love  of  their  children 
they  enjoy  family  life. 

Notwithstanding  the  unequal  provisions  of  the  law  of  Islam, 
the  women  are  bigoted  and  faithful  Mohammedans.  They 
look  upon  their  condition  as  their  fate,  their  kismet!  They 
are  devoted  to  their  fasts  and  their  prayers,  though  they  must 
pray  in  a  low  voice  and  cross  their  hands  before  them,  not 
stretch  them  forth,  as  men  do.  If  opportunity  offers  for  a 
pilgrimage,  the  journey  of  two  months,  with  all  its  difficulties, 
seems  as  nothing  to  them  in  view  of  the  merit  and  honor. 
They  regard  themselves  alone  as  enlightened,  and  all  the  rest 
of  womankind  as  in  spiritual  darkness.  They  despise  Chris- 
tian women  as  unclean,  and,  even  if  astonished  at  their  edu- 
cation, will  say,  "  What  a  pity  that  so  refined  and  cultured  a 
lady  should  go  to  hell! "  A  village  woman  said  to  a  mission- 
ary, "  You  have  fine  clothes,  you  are  beautiful,  you  can  read, 
your  works  are  good,  you  tell  no  lies,  you  only  lack  one  thing : 
turn  and  become  a  Mohammedan!" 


CHAPTER   XV 

VILLAGE    LIFE 

THE  mass  of  the  population  of  Persia  are  peasants,  in- 
cluding in  this  term  farmers,  gardeners,  and  shepherds. 
The  peasants  are  robust  and  temperate.  As  a  class  they  have 
few  wants  and  fewer  comforts.  Their  food  is  simple,  their 
clothing  cheap  and  scanty,  their  houses  very  rude,  their  minds 
uncultivated.  Very  few  of  them  can  read.  The  primitive 
flint  and  steel  still  light  their  fires  and  pipes.  They  have  little 
ambition  to  rise  in  life.  They  are  acquainted  with  the  rites 
and  traditions  of  their  religion,  and  are  faithful  in  the  per- 
formance of  its  ceremonies,  but  neglect  the  weightier  matters 
of  truth  and  righteousness. 

The  contrast  between  Persian  and  American  farmers  is 
greater  than  between  the  city  laborers  in  the  same  countries. 
The  American  farmer  is  really  a  landlord.  His  house  and 
barn  are  palaces  compared  with  those  of  the  Persian  peasant. 
His  superior  comforts  in  life,  conveniences  for  labor,  and 
intellectual  advantages  are  beyond  all  comparison.  Persian 
farmers  are  not  the  owners  of  the  land  they  cultivate,  and  have 
no  expectation  of  becoming  proprietors.  For  safety  their 
houses  are  all  collected  in  villages  and  are  crowded  together. 
The  stable  is  just  beside  the  living-room,  with  one  yard  for 
both.  The  roof  of  the  stable  and  the  corners  of  the  yard  are 
filled  with  stacks  of  hay,  thorn-bushes,  and  manure  fuel.  The 
latter  is  prepared  by  being  kneaded,  formed  into  cakes,  and 
stuck  upon  the  walls  to  dry.     In  all  villages  it  is  ever  present 

268 


VILLAGE  LIFE  269 

to  sight  and  smell.  Some  of  it  is  moulded  into  bowls  and 
covers  for  the  tandurs  and  skyhghts.  The  village  streets  are 
narrow,  crooked,  and  as  filthy  in  rainy  weather  as  an  undrained 
barnyard.  Fleas,  flies,  sand-flies,  mosquitoes,  body-lice,  and 
sheep-ticks  are  common  nuisances. 

A  glimpse  of  the  life  of  the  farmers'  wives,  as  seen  on  the 
Ujan  River,  is  presented  by  Mrs.  Wilson  as  follows :  "  In  one 
room  the  whole  family  of  father  and  mother,  sons  and  daugh- 
ters, brides  and  grandchildren,  live  together  in  such  harmony 
as  may  be  where  there  are  rival  wives  and  different  sets  of  chil- 
dren. A  swinging  hammock  holds  the  youngest  baby,  and  the 
other  children,  half  naked,  filthy,  and  often  sore-eyed,  seem  to 
receive  little  care,  though  mother-love  is  strong  and  tender  here 
as  everywhere.  The  clothing  of  men  and  women  is  a  com- 
mon blue  cotton  cloth,  made  up  with  little  difference  in  style, 
except  that  the  woman's  costume  reaches  only  to  the  knees, 
leaving  limbs  and  feet  bare.  But  the  head-dress  is  distinctive  : 
only  men  wear  hats,  while  women  have  handkerchiefs  of  red 
— the  favorite  color — and  in  the  street  are  enveloped  in  the 
chudder  of  checked  white-and-blue  cotton.  My  costume  in 
every  particular  was  a  wonder  to  them.  They  asked  me  to 
take  off  my  shoes  and  'be  comfortable  '  (?),  to  wear  my  hair 
in  tiny  braids  down  my  back  as  they  do,  and  especially  to  take 
off  my  hat  and  cover  my  face  like  a  woman.  In  answer  I  told 
them,  '  We  are  ashamed,  not  to  uncover  our  faces,  but  to  ex- 
pose our  bodies.'  And  they  looked  down  at  their  open  breasts 
and  uncovered  limbs  as  though  they  had  received  a  new  idea 
of  modesty.  An  all-sufiicient  explanation  of  my  appearance 
was  simply  to  say,  '  It  is  our  custom.' 

"  One  morning  I  saw  a  family  at  breakfast.  A  great  pot  of 
soup  made  of  sour  milk  and  herbs  was  lifted  out  of  the  deep 
oven  and  poured  into  bowls,  which  the  men  shared  together, 
two  at  a  bowl,  dipping  in  their  bread  and  big  wooden  spoons 
alternately.    When  they  had  finished  the  women  used  the  same 


270  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

bowls  and  spoons,  and  ate  the  remainder.  The  soup  seemed 
savory  as  Jacob's,  and  good  appetites  are  born  of  constant 
work  and  fresh  mountain  air. 

"  After  breakfast  the  women  do  the  daily  baking.  The 
yeasted  bread  is  rolled  into  balls  on  a  sheepskin,  then  rolled 
and  tossed  deftly  till  it  becomes  a  long  thin  sheet,  spread  on  a 
cushion,  and  slapped  on  the  sides  of  the  oven  till  baked,  and 
is  crisp  and  good  when  fresh.  Thirty  or  more  of  these  sheets 
are  baked  every  day,  and  it  is  no  easy  task  bending  over  the 
hot  furnace  preparing  them.  Next  the  house  is  swept  and  the 
dishes  washed,  though  not  wiped.  Perhaps  there  is  a  special 
job  on  hand  of  salt-grinding,  and  two  women  sit  at  the  mill 
turning  the  heavy  stones,  each  taking  hold  of  the  wooden  stick 
which  serves  as  a  handle.  There  is  always  knitting  or  carpet- 
weaving  for  regular  occupation.  Over  a  huge  wooden  frame 
are  stretched  rough  brown  threads  to  serve  as  a  warp,  while 
on  a  bench  in  front  the  weaver  sits  deftly  putting  in  the  bright 
colors.  An  inch  a  day  along  the  line  of  the  pattern  is  perhaps 
all  she  accomplishes,  but  it  is  the  one  artistic  pleasure  of  her 
life.  At  noon  is  milking-time,  and  the  village  herd  comes  in 
from  the  fields.  For  each  owner  to  select  his  own  among  this 
bleating  crowd  seems  well-nigh  impossible  ;  and  when  we  asked 
how  it  was  done  one  man  said, '  If  a  man  has  ten  children 
doesn't  he  know  them  all?  '  The  women  sit  on  the  ground  to 
milk,  while  the  children,  like  Homer's  flies  that  '  buzz  about  at 
milking-time,'  hover  near  to  stick  in  their  dirty  little  fingers  and 
get  a  taste  of  the  warm  foam." 

The  farmers  go  out  long  distances  to  their  work.  The 
most  primitive  methods  are  employed  by  them.  Two  kinds  of 
plows  are  used.  The  smaller  one  is  simply  the  fork  of  a  tree ; 
the  point  of  the  larger  one  is  covered  with  iron.  They  do  not 
overturn  the  soil,  but  only  loosen  it  to  a  shallow  depth.  For 
some  crops  the  ground  is  plowed  three  times.  After  harrow- 
ing, small  ridges  or  ditches  are  made  to  divide  the  field  into 


VILLAGE  LIFE  271 

sections,  in  order  to  facilitate  irrigation.  These  are  made  by 
two  men,  with  the  use  of  a  large  hoe.  One  man  pulls  the 
handle  and  moves  the  soil,  and  the  other,  with  a  rope,  lifts  the 
hoe  and  places  it  for  the  next  pull.  The  seed  is  carried  in  a 
sack  on  one  arm  and  scattered  with  the  other.  There  are  no 
fences ;  the  fields  extend  for  miles  without  interruption,  save 
for  the  watercourses  and  trees  planted  beside  them.  The  reaper 
bends  over  his  work  with  a  short  sickle  in  one  hand,  while  in 
the  other  sometimes  a  stick  a  foot  long  is  fastened  with  bands 
of  leather  or  a  glove,  so  that  he  may  grasp  a  larger  bundle. 
The  traveler  is  accustomed  to  salute  the  harvesters  with  the 
greeting,  "  May  God  give  you  strength !  "  They  answer,  "  Your 
coming  is  pleasing  ;  may  Allah  keep  you!  "  He  replies,  "  May 
your  harvest  be  blessed !  "  They  respond,  "  May  your  life  be 
prolonged!"  If  the  traveler  be  a  prominent  man  they  bring 
a  sheaf  and  set  it  before  him  on  the  road,  or  a  sheep  with  a 
knife  held  at  its  throat,  ready  for  sacrifice  should  he  give  the 
word.  The  proper  acknowledgment  is  a  bakshish.  The  sheaves 
are  taken  to  the  threshing-floor  on  donkeys.  A  wooden  rack 
is  placed  on  top  of  the  pack-saddle,  that  a  larger  load  may  be 
bound  on  the  diminutive  animal.  Ropes  made  of  wool  or  of 
the  fibers  of  a  thorn-bush  are  used  to  tie  on  the  loads.  Hay 
is  also  tied  into  bundles  in  the  same  way.  On  some  plains  carts 
drawn  by  oxen  or  buffaloes  are  used  for  transporting  the  crops. 
They  are  heavy  structures  about  fifteen  feet  long.  The  bed 
is  six  feet  wide  at  the  back,  and  gradually  narrows  until  it 
reaches  a  point  at  the  end  of  the  tongue.  The  wheels  have 
clumsy  spokes,  on  the  ends  of  which  heavy  arcs  of  wood  are 
nailed.  Other  wheels  are  solid  circles  of  wood,  without  spokes, 
and  with  broad  iron  tires. 

The  threshing-floors  are  just  beside  the  village,  and  close  to 
one  another,  for  safety  and  convenience.  A  plot  of  land 
about  twenty-five  feet  square  is  leveled  off  and  hardened.  A 
staple  is  fastened  in  the  middle,  and  to  it  a  pole  is  sometimes 


272  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

attached.  Oxen,  tied  to  the  staple  or  pole,  tread  upon  and 
thresh  out  the  grain.  The  oxen  are  often  muzzled.  The 
people  say  it  is  right  to  do  so,  lest  the  oxen  surfeit  themselves 
to  their  own  injury.  Several  kinds  of  threshing-machines  are 
used.  One  kind  consists  of  a  roller,  about  five  feet  long,  with 
teeth  or  iron  spikes  spirally  arranged  on  it.  It  revolves  as  the 
oxen  draw  it.  Another  kind  is  in  the  shape  of  a  paddle,  foiu" 
or  five  feet  long  and  two  feet  wide  in  the  broad  part.  Under 
it  are  fastened  about  thirty  rows  of  flintstones,  which  protrude 
below  the  surface.  The  front  part  is  turned  up  like  a  sled-run- 
ner, and  a  man  stands  on  it  and  beats  the  oxen.  By  either  of 
these  methods  the  straw  is  thoroughly  cut  up  and  the  wheat 
loosened.  With  a  wooden  pitchfork,  the  prongs  of  which  are 
tied  on  with  twine,  it  is  cast  before  the  wind,  and  the  chaff  is 
blown  aside.  The  cut  straw  is  stored  away  for  fodder  and 
plastering,  but  bricks  are  made  without  straw.  Harvesting  is 
done  by  men,  the  seclusion  of  women  generally  precluding 
them  from  working  in  the  fields.  I  have,  however,  seen  a 
woman  standing  by  the  threshing-machine,  holding  a  babe  in 
one  hand  and  beating  the  oxen  with  the  other.  In  Mezan- 
deran  the  women  work  much  in  the  rice-fields.  Occasionally 
a  farmer  has  a  "  bee,"  when  the  neighbors  assist  him  with 
heartiness,  and  the  host  provides  roast  sheep  and  boiled  rice 
for  the  company.  Of  the  crops  Httle  more  need  be  said. 
The  yield  of  grain  is  from  three  to  twenty  fold.  The  cotton 
plant  and  pod  are  smaller  than  the  American.  Its  cultivation 
was  greatly  increased  during  the  Civil  War.  That  event  is  re- 
membered as  the  time  when  cotton  reached  its  highest  price. 
The  cotton  is  taken  from  the  stock  and  pod  by  hand.  It  is 
then  put  in  an  oven  and  dried.  After  this  it  is  laid  on  a  wicker 
platter  and  hammered.  Then  it  is  passed  under  a  cyhnder, 
turned  by  a  crank  by  a  man  sitting  on  the  floor,  and  the  seeds 
separated.     The  latter  are  fed  to  animals. 

A  peculiar  crop  is  the  harvest  of  thorns.    On  the  uncultivated 


VILLAGE  LIFE  273 

land  and  on  the  fields  after  harvest  spring  up  great  quantities 
of  camel-thorns.  These  are  dihgently  gathered,  and  brought 
on  donkeys'  backs  to  be  used  with  dried  manure  in  baking 
bread,  burning  limestone  or  brick,  and  heating  the  bath-houses. 
The  landlord  sometimes  lives  among  his  ryots  or  peasants, 
occupying  a  castle,  around  which  his  villages  extend.  More 
frequently  he  is  an  absentee — a  khan,  a  mujtehid,  or  a  mer- 
chant— living  in  some  near  or  distant  city.  A  considerable 
number  of  villages  belong  to  the  crown,  and  are  called  khdlisa. 
Over  each  village  is  placed  an  agent,  who  collects  from  the 
peasants  first  the  rental  for  the  landlord,  secondly  the  annual 
tax,  and  thirdly  a  good  reward  for  his  own  trouble.  These  are 
paid  in  cash,  or  more  frequently  in  kind,  with  a  certain  number 
of  kharvars  of  grain  and  loads  of  straw.  Land  is  assigned  to 
the  farmer  on  shares,  with  no  certainty  of  his  having  the  same 
plot  the  next  year.  The  proportion  paid  by  the  farmer  de- 
pends on  seed  and  water.  When  using  his  own  seed  he  gives 
one  third  in  rental ;  when  the  owner  furnishes  the  seed  he  gives 
two  thirds  of  the  crop.  The  agent  is  frequently  extortionate, 
and  the  farmer  desirous  to  escape  with  a  light  tax ;  so  there  is 
continual  quarreling,  beating,  and  cursing.  One  method  of 
keeping  the  grain  from  being  tampered  with  until  it  is  divided 
is  by  a  wooden  seal  about  two  feet  long,  the  impress  of  which 
is  left  on  the  pile  of  grain  and  must  be  found  undisturbed  in 
the  morning.  When  oppressed  or  beaten  the  poor  farmers  have 
little  hope  of  redress.  They  sometimes  rise  en  masse  and  go 
to  the  nearest  governor  to  petition  for  relief.  As  a  last  resort 
they  abandon  their  village.  Gathering  up  their  few  utensils 
and  clothes,  piling  them  on  their  oxen  and  donkeys,  and  driv- 
ing a  few  sheep  before  them,  the  family  seek  subsistence  under 
a  new  landlord.  At  times  a  whole  village  is  thus  depopulated. 
They  have  never  owned  the  land  upon  which  their  houses  were 
built,  and  the  bare  mud-walls  have  little  value.  Sometimes 
they  have  a  right  to  take  away  the  timbers  of  the  roof  and  the 


274  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

doors.  This  emigration  might  be  called  a  Persian  strike,  and 
it  is  effective  in  injuring  the  landlord,  if  not  in  bringing  him  to 
terms  ;  for  in  a  sparsely  populated  region  it  sometimes  perma- 
nently diminishes  the  value  of  the  property,  while  the  amount 
of  the  taxes  remains  the  same  as  before. 

The  Persian  farmer  rotates  his  crops.  He  fertilizes  with 
manure,  ashes,  and  refuse.  Earth  from  old  walls  is  highly 
valued  as  a  fertilizer.  Irrigation  greatly  enriches  the  land. 
Grain  is  sometimes  stored  in  pits  which  have  been  plastered  and 
hned  with  brush  and  straw.  The  khans  often  keep  storehouses 
of  wheat,  waiting  for  a  rise  in  price.  Lack  of  snow  or  rain 
in  winter  quickly  sends  the  price  higher,  and  many  begin  to 
create  "  corners  "  and  bring  on  a  bread-famine.  The  Amir-i- 
Nizam,  when  governor  of  Tabriz,  won  the  gratitude  of  the  peo- 
ple by  bringing  to  the  city  year  by  year  the  government  sup- 
ply of  grain,  which  had  been  received  as  taxes,  and  selhng  it 
at  fair  prices. 

The  flocks  and  herds  of  a  village  are  pastured  in  common, 
in  charge  of  a  herder  and  some  boys.  The  watch-dogs  are 
fierce  yellow  curs,  a  terror  to  a  stranger.  Sometimes  yokes  are 
put  on  these  dogs,  to  prevent  them  from  jumping  walls  and 
trespassing  on  vineyards.  Servants  have  been  known,  after 
purloining  grapes,  to  mangle  some  bunches  with  their  teeth,  in 
order  that  the  canines  might  bear  the  blame.  The  fiockF 
consist  of  sheep  and  goats,  herds  of  cows,  buffaloes,  horses, 
donkeys,  and  camels.  Sheep  and  goats  are  greatly  valued 
for  their  milk.  Of  it  most  of  the  butter,  yogurt,  and  cheese  is 
made.  Mutton  is  more  valued  than  beef.  The  latter  is  tough 
and  tasteless,  the  former  savory  and  free  from  offensive  odor. 
The  Persian  sheep  is  noted  for  its  large  tail.  It  is  a  mass  of 
fat  of  ten  pounds'  weight.  The  yarns  of  some  travelers  to  the 
effect  that  the  tails  of  these  sheep  are  supported  on  a  little 
wagon  to  prevent  their  dragging  on  the  ground  are,  I  need 
hardly  say,  apocryphal !     The  tail-fat,  roasted  with  the  mutton. 


VILLAGE  LIFE  275 

is  considered  a  delicacy ;  when  so  rendered  it  fills  the  place 
which  lard  and  cottolene  occupy  in  Western  households.  The 
United  States  minister  to  Persia,  Mr.  Truxton  Beale,  imported 
some  of  this  breed  of  sheep  into  Cahfornia.  The  cows  are 
diminutive  in  size  and  give  a  scanty  supply  of  milk.  There 
is  a  popular  notion  that  if  the  calf  is  taken  away  the  cow  will 
become  dry.  Hence  the  hide  is  stuffed  with  straw  and  placed 
beside  the  cow  at  milking-time.  Oxen,  buffaloes,  and  don- 
keys are  almost  exclusively  used  for  farm-work.  Oxen  are 
sometimes  shod  and  as  many  as  six  pairs  hitched  to  one  plow. 
The  buffalo  is  extremely  ugly,  black,  almost  hairless,  and  very 
powerful.  The  donkey  has  great  endurance,  lives  at  small 
cost  on  straw,  weeds,  and  thorn-bushes,  and  is  withal  the  best 
friend  of  the  Persian  farmer.  Horses,  mules,  and  camels  are 
little  used  in  farming.  Of  the  camel's  hair  the  villagers  make 
thick  ropes,  rough  cloth  and  rugs,  and  even  the  finest  quality 
of  shawls.  The  feeding  of  the  camelis  interesting.  It  eats 
hay,  thorns,  thistles,  and  the  roughest  of  stubble ;  but  its  pecu- 
liar food  is  a  ball  of  barley  or  other  flour,  about  the  size  of  a 
croquet-ball,  which  is  prepared  and  thrust  into  its  mouth.  It 
is  susceptible  to  cold,  and  should  be  used  on  the  road  in  north- 
ern Persia  only  about  seven  months  in  the  year.  When  old  or 
disabled  its  flesh  is  eaten.  Sometimes  it  becomes  crazy,  and 
is  then  very  dangerous.  When  so,  it  will  tear  and  grind  a  man 
to  mincemeat  under  its  knee.  It  is  tamed  only  by  starvation. 
Irrigation  occupies  much  of  the  attention  of  the  farmers. 
Every  river,  creek,  and  spring  is  utilized.  At  some  distance 
up  a  stream  a  channel  is  dug  and  the  water  taken  off  on  a  high 
level.  The  watercourse  follows  the  crooks  and  turns  of  the 
valley,  going  far  up  into  the  gullies,  preserving  an  approximate 
level,  sending  out  its  branches,  and  distributing  its  supply  over 
the  low  ground.  The  only  principle  of  mechanics  utilized  is 
that  water  flows  downhill.  For  flour-mills  the  stream  is  kept 
on  a  high  level  and  made  to  run  down  through  a  trough  and  so 


276  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

turn  the  wheels.  In  summer  good-sized  rivers  are  completely 
utilized  and  their  lower  channel  left  dry.  Where  only  a  tiny 
spring  flows,  it  is  collected  in  a  pond  and  let  out  with  a  flush. 
In  gardens  large  reservoirs  of  masonry  are  built  for  the  same 
purpose.  Besides  all  these,  fountains  are  opened  up  with 
great  labor  and  expense.  Wells  are  put  down  to  tap  the 
underground  sources,  especially  in  the  upland  valleys.  These 
wells  are  joined  by  a  tunnel,  called  a  karis  or  a  kanaut,  through 
which  the  water  flows,  until  it  finally  comes  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground  on  the  lower  plain.  The  opening  is  called  the 
chesma  or  eye.  These  wells  are  sunk  two  or  three  hundred 
feet  apart,  and  often  are  as  much  as  three  hundred  feet  deep. 
They  not  only  serve  to  collect  water,  but  especially  to  make 
it  possible  to  remove  the  earth  from  the  subterranean  channel 
or  tunnel.  The  length  of  the  latter  is  from  two  to  ten  miles. 
The  ground  is  generally  a  loose  sedimentary  deposit,  and  a 
few  men,  with  a  short  shovel,  a  leather  bucket,  and  a  wind- 
lass, easily  excavate  the  channels.  The  earth  is  left  around 
the  mouth  of  the  well,  making  little  mounds,  which  are  one  of 
the  special  features  of  Persian  landscapes.  The  wells  are  left 
open,  and  are  dangerous  to  herds  and  hunters.  The  tunnel, 
not  being  arched,  is  liable  at  any  time  to  cave  in  and  tempo- 
rarily stop  the  supply  of  water.  Many  of  these  tunnels  pass 
under  one  or  more  villages  before  coming  to  the  surface.  The 
value  of  a  fountain  is  often  the  equivalent  of  the  village,  which 
without  this  supply  would  revert  to  the  wilderness.  Water 
privileges  are  a  continual  cause  of  quarreling.  Near  villages, 
and  among  close  neighbors,  irrigation  strifes  are  common,  and 
even  murders  are  committed  over  well  contentions,  as  the  ser- 
vants of  Abraham  and  Lot  disagreed.  Since  their  crops  de- 
pend upon  it,  they  hotly  and  persistently  maintain  their  rights. 
There  are  no  artesian  wells  in  Persia.  Dr.  W.  W.  Torrence 
procured  a  concession  from  the  shah  to  bore  artesian  wells. 
He  organized  a  company,  which  was  incorporated  by  the 


l/ILLAGE  LIFE  277 

State  of  Maine.  Seventy  camel-loads  of  machinery  were 
brought  five  hundred  miles,  via  Bushire,  to  Teheran.  The 
privilege  was  granted  of  boring  a  well  on  the  American  Mis- 
sion premises,  on  condition  of  a  perpetual  water  right  being 
granted  for  irrigation  purposes.  A  well  was  bored  to  the 
depth  of  nine  hundred  feet.  But  the  breaking  of  parts  of  the 
machinery  necessitated  sending  them  to  Baku  for  repairs,  and 
thus  delayed  the  boring.  Finally  the  company  exhausted  its 
capital  and  suspended  operations,  without  accomplishing  any 
results.  It  was  a  great  misfortune  for  Persia,  since  artesian 
wells  would  be  a  sure  means  of  preventing  famines,  as  well 
as  of  increasing  the  arable  area  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

BUSINESS    LIFE 

"TTTHAT  do  the  people  in  Persian  cities  do  for  a  living?" 
V  V  is  a  question  frequently  asked.  The  open  bazaars  fur- 
nish the  answer.  The  bazaars  are  not  merely  places  of  bar- 
ter, but  constitute  an  extensive  manufacturing  establishment. 
Many  of  the  shops  are  factories,  and,  though  each  one  is  on  a 
small  scale,  they  collectively  carry  on  large  industries.  The 
condition  resembles  that  of  an  American  city  before  the  ad- 
vent of  steam  and  the  establishment  of  great  factories.  There 
is  no  machinery ;  the  furthest  advance  is  in  the  use  of  sewing- 
machines,  treadles,  and  imported  hand-tools.  All  the  methods 
of  manufacture  are  open  to  the  view  of  the  passer-by.  Some 
tradesmen  are  seen  carding  wool  and  making  kecha  or  felt 
matting  ;  others  are  pulhng  cotton  fiber  and  making  quilts.  In 
the  timber  bazaar  men  are  sawing  boards  with  long  hand-saws ; 
a  little  farther  on  carpenters  are  making  them  into  doors  and 
windows ;  others  are  sawing  out  the  teeth  of  wooden  combs. 
In  the  next  shop  the  blacksmith  is  blowing  his  bellows  and 
welding  hinges  and  latches.  Rows  of  hatters  are  seen  shaping 
kulas  and  stretching  them  on  moulds,  and  exhibiting  their  stock 
of  different  styles  and  thicknesses  of  felt,  broadcloth,  fur,  and 
lambskin.  The  confectioner  is  seen  pulling  taffy,  and  crush- 
ing rice-flour  with  a  great  sledge-hammer ;  the  restaurateur 
chopping  meat  and  mixing  with  it  garlic  and  onions,  to  make 
savory  cabobs;  the  baker  is  kneading  dough,  heating  the 
oven,  and  throwing  on  pegs  the  sweet-smelling  sangaks,  while 

278 


BUSINESS  LIFE  279 

he  talks  across  the  ten-foot  street  to  the  chandler,  who  is 
pouring  candles  into  moulds  before  the  gaze  of  all.  Scores 
of  saddlers,  braziers,  turners,  tailors,  silversmiths,  and  other 
artisans  are  busy  at  work,  stopping  their  work  only  to  wait 
on  their  customers.  They  are  perhaps  making  some  goods  to 
order,  but  especially  are  preparing  a  stockfor  all  the  surround- 
ing towns  and  villages.  Some  articles,  such  as  woolen,  cotton, 
and  silk  goods,  are  woven  on  hand-looms  at  home ;  carpets 
are  made  in  the  villages ;  dyeing  is  done  throughout  the  city ; 
but  the  great  factory  is  the  open,  busy  bazaars.  In  them  con- 
tests of  capital  and  labor  do  not  arise.  Each  shopkeeper  is 
a  small  capitalist,  and  has  a  few  apprentices,  whom  he  feeds 
and  clothes,  and  each  of  whom  hopes  soon  to  set  up  a  sepa- 
rate shop.  The  artisans  have  guilds,  and  sometimes  work  in 
combination  to  regulate  the  price. 

Bartering  in  the  Persian  bazaar  is  a  complicated  process. 
Scarcely  a  shopkeeper  makes  even  a  pretense  of  having  a  fixed 
price.  He  asks  more  than  he  expects,  allowing  a  wide  margin 
for  "jewing."  If  he  should  get  what  he  asked  he  would  re- 
gret that  he  did  not  ask  more.  I  have  known  a  carpet-dealer 
to  refuse  to  sell  a  rug  at  his  own  price,  and  demand  more,  be- 
cause the  buyer  immediately  agreed  to  take  it.  Let  us  sup- 
pose that  a  customer  stops  before  a  shop  and  inquires  the 
price  of  an  article.  "  Seven  krans,"  says  the  seller.  "  It  is 
dear,"  replies  the  buyer;  "what  is  the  real  price?  "  "  No,  it 
is  not  dear.  See  how  pretty  it  is — there  is  not  another  like  it. 
What  will  you  give  for  it?  "  The  buyer  rephes,  "  I'll  give  two 
krans."  "What!" — with  indignation  pulling  back  the  article 
— "  do  you  think  I  found  it?  Many  days'  work  have  been  put 
on  this.  It  is  antika  "  (antique,  superior).  "  But  your  price 
is  very  high.  Give  it  to  me  for  two  krans."  "Impossible!" 
says  the  seller.  "  Look  at  it — it  is  excellent.  For  your  sake 
I  will  favor  you  with  it  for  six  krans  'black'  [copper]  money." 
"  Do  you  think  I  am  a  fool  ?     Haven't  I  two  eyes?     In  the 


280  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

name  of  our  religion  I  will  only  give  you  a  manat  for  it.  This 
is  my  best  offer! "  "  Do  you  wish  me  to  suffer  loss?  By  the 
Prophet,  by  the  hand  of  Abbas,  I  paid  five  krans  for  it.  Give 
me  an  abbasi  profit."  "You  are  lying.  I  have  no  time  to  talk 
all  day.  Give  it  to  me  for  four  krans ;  I  am  going."  "  It  is 
a  present  to  you  ;  give  me  five  krans  and  it  is  yours!  "  "  No! 
Four  krans."  "No!  Five  krans" — with  an  oath.  The 
buyer  moves  slowly  a  few  steps  away ;  the  seller  pretends  to 
put  up  the  article.  Each  one  expects  the  other  to  renew  the 
dickering.  Finally,  it  may  be,  the  seller  yells  after  the  customer, 
"  Aga,  look  here."  "  Well,  what  is  it?  "  "  Give  me  four  and 
a  half  and  take  it."  "  No!  "  "  Well,  give  yoiu:  money."  And 
the  four  krans  are  paid  over  in  "  black  "  money,  with  which 
the  buyer  had  loaded  down  his  pockets  beforehand  by  chang- 
ing his  silver  or  "  white  "  money,  to  save  the  difference  in  the 
coins.  The  proverb  of  Solomon  thus  receives  daily  illustra- 
tion :  "  It  is  naught,  it  is  naught,  saith  the  buyer :  but  when 
he  is  gone  his  way,  then  he  boasteth."  Every  one  will  call  to 
mind  the  negotiations  of  Abraham  with  the  children  of  Heth, 
which  exempHfy  another  kind  of  Oriental  overreaching. 

In  bartering  the  Mohammedan  has  an  advantage  over  an 
Armenian  or  foreigner,  not  only  because  his  co-religionist  is 
willing  to  sell  to  him  cheaper  than  to  others,  but  because,  in 
the  case  of  vegetables,  meat,  or  anything  that  is  moist,  and 
sometimes  in  the  case  of  dry  articles  of  food,  a  Christian  is  not 
permitted  to  touch  them.  A  Christian  picked  up  some  tea  in 
his  hands  to  smell.  The  shopkeeper  objected.  The  buyer 
said,  "  All  right,  weigh  what  I  have  in  my  hand,"  and  he  paid 
him  two  cents  for  it.  For  this  cause  there  are  no  Christian 
bakers,  butchers,  or  fruit-dealers  in  Persian  cities. 

A  numerous  class  of  merchants  are  those  who  go  from  city 
to  city.  One  of  them  starts,  let  us  suppose,  from  Ispahan,  with 
the  goods  and  wares  of  that  city — its  brass-work,  enamels,  and 
tiles.     He  goes  to  Kashan,  sells  what  he  can,  and  replenishes 


BUSINESS  LIFE  281 

his  stock  with  velvets  and  silks.  Here  and  there  he  gathers 
embroideries,  carpets,  and  curios.  At  Tabriz  he  remains  awhile 
trading,  and  finally  sets  off  for  Constantinople.  There  he  dis- 
poses of  his  Persian  stock  and  buys  European  goods,  and  soon 
returns  to  make  a  profitable  exchange  in  the  Persian  markets. 

Wholesale  trade  is  largely  confined  to  imported  goods, 
such  as  cotton  and  woolen  piece-goods,  notions,  tea,  sugai, 
etc.  Goods  are  sold  on  long  time,  at  large  risk,  and  therefore 
at  high  prices.  The  retail  price  is  in  some  cases  one  hundred 
per  cent,  in  advance  of  the  original  European  price.  The 
customs-duty  on  merchandise,  according  to  treaty,  is  five  per 
cent.  Large  partnerships  or  companies  are  not  usual,  because 
of  lack  of  confidence.  Lately  some  companies  have  been 
formed,  especially  among  the  Armenians,  for  export  trade. 
Many  of  the  latter  spend  the  autumn  and  winter  in  Persia,  pur- 
chasing the  crops  of  cotton,  silk,  furs,  opium,  nuts,  raisins,  and 
dried  fruits,  and  then  spend  the  spring  and  summer  in  Russia 
in  selling  them. 

In  commercial  affairs  the  Persians  use  the  Arabic  notation 
for  indicating  the  date,  the  number  of  yards,  the  weight  of  the 
bale,  etc. ;  but  for  money  a  peculiar  system  is  used,  based  on  the 
denar.  Its  multiples  are  indicated  by  signs,  built  one  on  the 
other,  after  the  manner  of  stenography.  This  notation  reads 
from  right  to  left,  while  the  Arabic  notation  reads  from  left  to 
right.  This  method  is  called  the  denar  system.  (See  Appen- 
dix.) Fifty  denars  equal  one  shahi,  twenty  shahis  equal  one 
kran,  ten  krans  equal  one  toman.  The  Imperial  Bank  and 
many  Armenian  merchants  are  now  introducing  the  decimal 
system. 

Persian  bankers  or  sarafs  are  numerous  and  capable.  Their 
transactions  are  confined  to  loans  and  exchange.  As  the  Koran 
forbids  the  taking  of  interest,  the  amount  is  added  to  the  face 
of  the  note  at  the  first.  A  banker,  even  when  wealthy,  is  ac- 
customed to  sit  on  a  cushion  in  a  little  shop,  with  an  iron  box 


282  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

behind  him,  a  mirza  or  two  beside  him,  and  a  pile  of  copper 
shahis  in  front,  for  money-changing.  Exchange  in  Persia  is 
regulated  by  Europe  and  India.  The  price  of  the  Russian 
ruble  is  telegraphed  to  Tabriz,  and  forms  the  basis  of  calcula- 
tion. Paper  rubles  are  an  article  of  purchase  and  sale,  though 
not  a  circulating  medium.  In  1883  the  shah  prohibited  deal- 
ing in  paper  money.  The  wording  of  his  edict,  as  given  by 
Cm-zon,  was  that  "  the  people  are  very  foolish  who  take  dirty 
pieces  of  paper  for  gold  and  silver,  and  in  future  all  Russian 
rubles  will  be  confiscated."  But  trade  in  them  still  continued. 
One  reason  was  the  great  scarcity  of  Persian  coin.  In  buy- 
ing a  bill  of  exchange  the  Persian  banker  would  give  part  of 
its  value  in  Persian  or  Russian  silver,  and  the  remainder  in 
rubles,  notes,  and  Russian  and  Turkish  gold.  Coin  was  at  a 
premium  of  six  or  seven  per  cent.  Goods  were  sold  and  ac- 
counts kept  by  merchants  on  the  basis  rightly  called  chiinik 
or  "  rotten,"  and  payments  were  made  by  drafts  cashed  at  the 
above  discount.  Cash,  when  obtained,  was  a  rare  and  curi- 
ous spectacle.  The  main  currency  was  Russian  ten,  fifteen, 
and  twenty  copeck  pieces,  of  an  antiquated  coinage,  counted 
as  dyit  10,  and  13^  shahis.  These  were  often  counterfeit, 
worn,  punched,  or  tezabi  (reduced  in  weight  by  acid),  and 
subject  to  discount  according  to  their  condition.  The  task 
of  counting  a  thousand  tomans  in  such  currency  was  very  irk- 
some. The  Persian  sits  on  the  floor,  counts  in  handfuls  of  three 
or  five  coins  each,  setting  aside  one  coin  as  a  counter  when  the 
fiftieth  hand  is  reached,  and  finally  reckoning  up  the  counters. 
On  reaching  thirteen,  the  unlucky  number,  he  is  accustomed 
to  say,  "  It  is  not  thirteen,"  and  complacently  throws  down 
the  next  hand.  He  keeps  repeating  the  previous  number, 
lest  it  slip  from  his  memory.  In  Urumia,  at  the  time  referred 
to,  silver  medjadeyas  and  rupees  were  also  in  circulation,  be- 
sides old  Persian  coins.  The  latter  were  rudely  stamped,  with 
rough  edges  and  varying  shapes  and  values.    The  privilege  of 


BUSINESS  LIFE  283 

minting  was  granted  to  individuals  on  the  payment  of  a  tax. 
In  Azerbijan  alone  there  were  mints  at  Tabriz,  Ardebil,  Khoi, 
Urumia,  and  Soujbulak.  Old  copper  coins  were  still  more  mi- 
shapely  than  the  silver  ones.  Some  of  them,  such  as  a  coin  of 
Soujbulak,  were  of  as  small  a  value  as  one  fifth  of  a  cent. 

The  mint  at  Teheran,  established  in  1878,  removed  some  of 
these  difficulties.  The  new  coinage  is  quite  regular.  The  old 
coinage  was  withdrawn  from  circulation  by  a  peculiar  Oriental 
device.  By  royal  firman  five  of  the  old  copper  shahis  were  de- 
clared equal  to  two  of  the  new  ones,  so  that  all  copper  coins 
in  the  hands  of  the  people  suffered  much  depreciation.  Rus- 
sian silver,  too,  was  discounted  by  the  shah's  order,  and  disap- 
peared from  circulation  in  Persia.  At  present,  under  a  silver 
standard,  copper  currency  rates  at  95  per  cent.,  and  gold  at  from 
180  to  210  per  cent.  Labor  is  paid,  and  retail  trade  carried 
on,  in  copper  currency  ;  taxes  and  customs  are  paid,  and  gen- 
eral business  is  conducted,  with  silver  coins,  of  the  value  of  one 
or  two  dimes.  Persian  gold  coin  has  practically  disappeared 
from  circulation. 

The  ordinary  rate  of  interest  is  from  12  to  18  per  cent. 
Rates  run  as  high  as  48  to  120  per  cent.  The  Kurds  often 
borrow  at  10  per  cent,  monthly  compound  interest,  and  after  a 
few  years  must  surrender  their  villages  to  satisfy  a  claim  which 
was  originally  small. 

The  depreciation  of  Persian  currency  has  been  steady.* 
Sixty  years  ago  the  gold  dollar  would  bring  three  and  one 
third  krans  in  exchange,  twenty-five  years  ago  five  krans,  in 
i8gi  seven  or  eight  krans,  in  1893,  at  the  abolition  of  free 
coinage  in  India,  nine  krans ;  after  the  repeal  of  the  Sherman 
Bill  the  gold  dollar  equaled  more  than  the  toman. 

*  In  Sir  John  Malcolm's  time  the  toman  was  equal  to  the  pound.  Cur- 
zon  says  that  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  toman  was 
equal  to  three  pounds  ten  shillings,  and  in  the  preceding  century  to  four 
pounds  ten  shillings. 


284  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

In  the  banks,  stores,  and  government  offices,  and  in  houses 
of  the  nobility,  are  a  class  of  men  employed  as  clerks,  secre- 
taries, and  accountants.  They  are  called  by  the  general  term 
"  mirza."  The  mirza  is  master  of  the  pen.  He  can  write  cor- 
rectly, and  with  the  observance  of  the  numerous  forms  neces- 
sary in  addressing  the  various  grades  of  society  and  official  life. 
His  education  is  primary.  His  outfit  consists  of  a  kalamdan 
and  a  roll  of  paper.  The  kalamdan  is  a  pen-case  about  eight 
inches  long  and  one  and  one  half  in  width  and  height,  which 
is  carried  in  his  girdle  or  pocket.  It  is  usually  made  of  papier- 
mache,  ornamented  with  pictiu-es  of  flowers  and  animals,  men 
and  women.  The  contents  of  the  case  are  a  small  inkholder 
of  brass  or  silver,  some  pens,  a  penknife,  a  piece  of  bone,  a 
small  spoon,  and  a  pair  of  scissors.  The  pens  are  stiff  reeds,  of 
the  same  kind  that  were  used  for  writing  on  papyrus  or  parch- 
ment. The  goose-quill,  though  it  has  been  used  in  some  coun- 
tries since  the  sixth  century,  has  not  been  adopted  in  Persia. 
The  steel  pen  is  being  introduced,  and  has  already  modified 
the  writing  of  Syriac  and  Armenian,  and  will  doubtless  modify 
the  Persian  character.  The  penknife  and  bone  are  used  for 
sharpening  the  pen.  The  point  of  the  reed  is  laid  on  the  bone 
to  be  cut  to  the  proper  bluntness.  The  scissors  are  necessary 
for  trimming  the  paper,  as  etiquette  and  good  luck  require. 
Some  lint  or  cotton  is  put  in  the  inkholder  and  saturated  with 
ink.     The  spoon  is  used  to  pour  water  on  it  and  mix  it. 

The  mirza  sits  on  the  floor,  sufficient  unto  himself.  Some- 
times he  has  a  small  table,  about  a  foot  high,  in  front  of  him. 
In  writing  a  letter  he  takes  a  piece  of  unruled  paper  in  his  left 
hand,  supports  it  on  his  forefinger,  and  writes  from  right  to 
left,  curving  the  lines  upward.  He  then  reverses  the  paper  and 
writes  upon  the  wide  margin,  at  an  angle  to  the  other  lines  and 
from  the  bottom  upward.  The  sender  certifies  it  by  sealing  it 
with  his  signet.  This  is  usually  made  of  brass  or  stone,  with 
the  name  and  title  engraved  upon  it.     Formerly  a  letter  was 


BUSINESS  LIFE  285 

folded  until  it  formed  a  flat  roll  half  an  inch  in  width.  It  was 
then  closed  with  a  band  of  tissue-paper,  on  which  the  seal  was 
affixed.  Now  letters  are  put  in  envelopes,  large  or  small,  ac- 
cording to  the  rank  of  the  person  addressed.  In  keeping  ac- 
counts the  mirza  makes  the  entries,  not  in  columns,  but  suc- 
cessively on  a  line,  and  joins  by  a  vinculum  the  name,  item, 
and  amount. 

One  part  of  Persian  business  hfe  which  merits  special  de- 
scription is  the  construction  of  buildings.  It  is  a  difficult  task, 
owing  to  a  variety  of  causes.  Available  materials  are  poor ; 
honest  contractors  are  not  to  be  found.  Master  masons  have 
an  unenviable  reputation.  Sharp  must  be  the  unsophisticated 
foreigner  to  escape  being  fleeced.  Even  experienced  natives 
are  completely  hoodwinked.  Buying  materials  is  bewildering. 
There  is  no  regular  market-price.  Tedious  caution  is  required 
to  reach  the  lowest  price.  The  custom  is  to  contract  in  the 
winter  for  materials  to  be  delivered  in  summer,  both  for  cheap- 
ness and  to  insure  their  preparation.  This  is  done  at  consid- 
erable risk.  When  the  materials  are  being  brought,  other  vexa- 
tions begin.  There  is  an  interminable  tramp  of  donkeys, 
loaded  with  stones,  brick,  or  lime.  Each  load  must  be 
counted  or  weighed,  and  receipted  for.  Time  and  patience 
are  consumed.  In  the  weighing  constant  efforts  are  made  to 
cheat  the  purchaser.  If  he  does  not  weigh  the  lime  it  will  be 
light  weight;  if  he  does  jt  will  be  mixed  with  earth.  If  he 
does  not  give  a  receipt  for  the  bricks  each  time  they  are  sent 
he  will  be  charged  with  more  than  he  has  received.  If  he 
appoints  an  overseer  he  will  be  either  careless  or  a  rascal,  and 
will  either  allow  the  account  to  get  mixed  up  and  give  the 
seller  an  opportunity  to  outwit  him,  or  he  will  accept  a  bribe 
and  wink  at  fraud.  When  the  work  actually  begins  one  is 
amazed  at  the  slowness  of  the  fellahs  or  laborers.  Their  picks 
fall  so  very  deliberately  and  accomphsh  so  little.  Two  fellahs 
fill  a  hod  with  earth  and  hft  it  on  the  shoulder  of  the  hod- 


286  PERSMN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

carrier,  who  meanwhile  stands  idle,  as  they  do,  also,  till  he  re- 
turns. In  mixing  mortar  four  or  five  men  do  the  work  of  one. 
The  bricklayer  has  a  gang  of  attendants.  Some  bring  brick, 
others  mortar ;  one  apprentice  throws  each  brick  to  him,  and 
another  passes  him  the  mortar  by  the  handful.  The  bricklayer, 
as  he  works,  sings  all  day  long,  with  -s-ariations,  calling  for 
materials  :  "  My  child,  give  me  mortar.  Throw  me  a  brick,  my 
son;  let  me  see  a  brick;  let  it  come  to  me.  Brother,  throw 
me  a  baby  brick  [i.e.,  a  half-brick].  Give  me  mortar,  O  my 
father."  An  army  of  men  seem  to  be  accomplishing  nothing, 
though  the  overseer  is  urging  them  to  activity,  and  riling  their 
tempers  and  his  own  all  the  time.  But  these  workmen  have 
much  excuse  for  laziness,  in  view  of  their  wages.  The  fellah 
gets  from  six  to  nine  cents  a  day,  the  hod-carriers  and  water- 
carriers  twelve  to  sixteen  cents,  the  carpenters  eighteen  to 
thirty  cents,  the  mason  eighteen  cents,  and  an  apprentice  five 
or  six  cents ;  while  from  the  wages  of  each  one  the  contractor 
or  master  mason  "  eats  "  a  half-cent  a  day. 

The  first  thing  noticeable  about  the  buildings  is  the  width  of 
the  foundations.  They  are  from  three  to  five  feet  thick,  made 
of  rough,  uneven  stone  and  a  mortar  of  lime  and  sifted  earth. 
The  stones  at  the  edge  are  placed  with  care,  sometimes  with 
a  layer  of  brick  between  them,  and  the  middle  is  filled  with  a 
conglomerate  of  small  stones.  The  cellars  are  arched.  The 
mason  draws  a  circle  on  the  wall  at  one  end,  using  simply  a 
string  and  a  bit  of  charcoal.  The  apprentice  mixes  a  dishful 
of  gypsum  [gach).  The  mason  throws  some  handfuls  of  it  on 
the  wall,  and  presses  some  bricks  upon  it  in  the  form  of  the 
arch.  They  adhere  immediately,  and  one  row  after  another 
is  put  on  until  the  cellar  is  arched  over.  The  top  of  the  arch 
is  filled  in  with  earth,  and  plastered  over  with  mud  or  lime- 
cement  to  make  the  floor.  The  walls  above  the  foundation 
are  built  of  sun-dried  brick.  The  process  of  manufacturing 
these   bricks   is   very  simple.     Earth   is   mixed   with  water. 


BUSINESS  LIFE  287 

kneaded  by  the  feet,  moulded  into  brick,  and  dried  for  two  days 
in  the  sun.  When  water  and  earth  are  at  hand  the  cost  of  the 
bricks  is  from  seventeen  to  twenty  cents  a  thousand.  They 
are  laid  with  a  mortar  of  mud  and  water.  The  poorness  of 
the  material,  and  the  possibility  of  earthquakes,  are  the  rea- 
sons for  the  thickness  of  the  walls.  The  outer  surface  of  the 
wall  sometimes  has  a  facing  of  kiln-burned  brick.  More  com- 
monly there  are  pilasters,  with  the  intervening  spaces  arched 
and  whitened.  Unhewn  trunks  of  poplars  or  sycamores  are 
used  as  rafters.  They  are  grown  by  irrigation  and  used  when 
five  to  six  inches  in  thickness.  Over  the  rafters  thick  laths 
are  placed,  and  on  these  a  reed  matting,  together  with  several 
inches  of  earth  and  two  or  three  coats  of  straw  and  mud-plas- 
ter.    This  roof  must  be  renewed  every  second  or  third  year. 

I  once  noticed  the  raising  of  a  heavy  beam.  It  was  a  hard 
task  for  them,  as  they  rarely  handle  such  heavy  timbers.  The 
workmen  were  Mohammedans,  and  as  they  gave  the  signal  to 
pull  all  together  they  shouted,  "Ya  Ali,  ya  Ali!" — calling  to 
their  help  their  Imam  Ali.  Beforehand  they  carefully  closed 
the  gates  of  the  lot,  that  no  one  might  enter.  I  inquired  the 
reason  for  this  action.  They  said  they  did  it  lest  people  should 
enter  and  cast  the  evil  eye  on  them  and  some  accident  happen. 

The  interiors  of  Persian  houses  are  generally  whitened  with 
plaster  of  Paris  and  ornamented  with  cornices.  Some  rooms 
have  figures  in  stucco-work  on  the  ceilings  and  in  the  takhtchas 
(niches).  A  few  rooms  are  elaborately  frescoed  with  a  scroll- 
work of  branches  and  flowers,  birds  and  animals,  in  relief  and 
colors. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Persia  is  carried  on  for  the  most  part 
with  England  and  Russia.  In  the  south  the  important  trade- 
routes  are  through  the  Persian  Gulf  ports,  Bushire  and  Bandar 
Abbas,  by  the  Karun  River,  and  by  Bagdad  and  Kermanshah. 
The  northern  route  by  Trebizond  and  Erzrum  is  much  used. 
The  Turkish  government  allows  goods  /;/  transitu  to  pass  in 


288  PERSIAN  LIFE  /iND   CUSTOMS 

bond,  securing  to  itself  certain  fees,  and  to  the  country  along  the 
route  considerable  profit.  Russia  puts  a  duty  on  goods  in  tran- 
situ, in  order  to  reserve  to  itself  the  trade  of  northern  Persia. 
Its  manufactures  are  entering  in  increasing  quantities  via  Julfa, 
the  Caspian  ports,  and  by  the  Transcaspian  Railway.  Tak- 
ing into  account  the  whole  of  Persia,  England  has  the  bulk  of 
its  trade,  both  as  to  value  and  tonnage.  It  is  interesting  to 
watch  the  rivalry  of  these  two  great  powers  in  Persia  in  mat- 
ters of  trade  and  politics. 

Great  Britain  entered  on  a  new  era  of  activity  at  the  time 
of  the  appointment  of  Sir  Henry  Drummond  Wolff  to  the  post 
of  minister  at  the  court  of  the  shah.  The  first  indication  of 
this  was  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty,  by  which  the  Karun  River 
was  opened  for  navigation.  The  Karun  is  navigable  for  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles,  as  far  as  Ahwaz,  and  thence  to  Shus- 
ter,  after  transfer  around  the  rapids.  The  New  Oriental  Bank 
established  agencies  in  Teheran,  Tabriz,  Ispahan,  and  Bushire. 
During  and  after  the  visit  of  the  shah  to  Europe  ( i  S89)  a  series 
of  projects  were  set  on  foot.  The  Imperial  Bank  of  Persia  was 
authorized,  with  ordinary  banking  rights,  and  given  the  power 
to  issue  paper  currency,  together  with  the  privilege  of  working 
mines.  It  was  understood  that  the  conditions  of  the  conces- 
sion were  the  payment  of  forty  thousand  pounds  in  cash  and 
six  per  cent,  of  the  net  annual  profits  to  the  shah.  The  Im- 
perial Bank  sold  its  mining  rights  to  a  Mining  Corporation, 
organized  largely  from  the  same  stockholders,  for  a  sum  nom- 
inally eight  hundred  thousand  pounds,  of  which  one  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  pounds  were  paid  in  cash,  and  the  remain- 
der in  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  five-pound  shares  of 
the  Mining  Corporation  stock.  A  Road  Company  also  was 
organized,  to  make  highways  from  Shuster  to  Ispahan  and 
Teheran.  Concessions  were  granted  for  electric-light  plant, 
for  artesian  wells,  for  the  manufacture  of  matches,  the  control 
of  the  tobacco  trade,  and  the  estabhshment  of  lotteries.    Russia 


BUSINESS  LIFE  289 

secured  the  exclusive  right  to  make  railways  for  a  period  of 
years,  established  a  consulate  at  Meshed,  and  joined  that  city 
by  a  wagon-road  to  its  Transcaspian  Railway.  French  engi- 
neers appeared  on  the  scene  to  open  a  highway  from  Trebi- 
zond  to  Tabriz.  Internal  monopolies  were  projected  ;  one  was 
for  the  control  of  the  brick  trade,  another  for  that  of  lime, 
another  for  the  manufacture  of  crockery.  It  seemed  that  a 
new  era  of  commercial  enterprise  was  dawning  upon  Persia,  and 
that  the  resources  of  the  country  were  soon  to  be  developed. 

For  a  while  progress  was  promising.  The  Imperial  Bank 
established  its  branches  throughout  the  country.  It  purchased 
the  Persian  branch  of  the  New  Oriental  Bank — a  fortunate 
event  for  the  Persian  depositors,  as  the  New  Oriental  Bank 
made  an  assignment  shortly  afterward,  causing  great  loss  in 
Japan  and  India.  A  paper  currency,  secured  by  a  reserve, 
was  issued  in  the  English  and  Persian  languages,  the  first 
paper  money  issued  in  Persia  since  that  of  the  Mongol  khan 
was  rejected  with  rioting.  This  new  issue  has  not  met  with 
favor. 

The  engineers  of  the  Mining  Corporation  opened  up  opera- 
tions. Petroleum  was  found,  according  to  report,  at  Doliki, 
iron  at  Hormuz  and  Karadagh,  asbestos  in  Kerman,  besides 
soft  and  hard  coal,  lead,  copper,  manganese,  and  borax.  The 
mining  of  copper  was  successfully  begun.  In  Afshar,  Azerbi- 
jan,  the  prospectors  discovered  indications  of  mercury.  Sev- 
eral bottles  of  it  were  collected,  and  served  to  stimulate  the 
price  of  stock.  After  spending  two  seasons  prospecting,  the 
field,  however,  was  abandoned,  and  the  company  went  into 
liquidation  in  1894.  The  engineer,  on  returning  to  England, 
was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  false  pretenses. 

Work  was  begun  energetically  on  the  highway  from  Shuster 
to  Ispahan,  but  difficulties  not  anticipated,  and  the  opposition 
of  the  inhabitants,  retarded  it.  Navigation  of  the  Karun  was 
rendered  unsafe  by  the  tribes  along  the  banks  shooting  at  the 


290  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

sailors  as  at  a  target.  The  project  for  a  wagon-road  from 
Trebizond  never  passed  the  initial  stage.  French  engineers 
spent  some  time  in  Tabriz,  the  guests  of  the  foreign  agent ; 
but  later  he  turned  the  foreigners  out  of  his  house,  and  called 
the  moUas  to  read  prayers  to  purify  it  from  the  pollution  of 
their  drunkenness.  No  railways  have  gone  into  operation  as 
the  result  of  Russian  concessions. 

In  addition  to  these  business  enterprises,  certain  swindles, 
such  as  the  Anglo-Asiatic  Syndicate  and  the  Persian  Lottery 
Company,  were  floated  on  the  English  public,  and  brought  large 
profits  to  their  projectors.  One  Persian  ofiicial  was  sued  in 
the  English  courts  for  the  recovery  of  forty  thousand  pounds. 

Of  all  the  concessions,  the  one  which  authorized  the  Imperial 
Tobacco  Corporation  has  proved  most  historic.  By  this  con- 
cession the  entire  purchase,  sale,  and  export  of  the  tobacco- 
crop  of  Persia  was  granted  as  a  monopoly.  The  conditions 
of  the  concession  were  reported  as  the  payment  of  forty  thou- 
sand tomans  in  cash,  and  eight  per  cent,  of  the  annual  profits 
to  the  Persian  government.  Major  Talbot,  the  concessionaire, 
sold  his  rights  to  a  company  chartered  by  Parliament  under 
the  title  of  the  Imperial  Tobacco  Corporation.  It  was  pro- 
claimed in  Persia  in  February,  1891,  and  its  plans  were  stated 
to  a  mass-meeting  of  Teheran  merchants,  under  the  direction 
of  the  minister  of  commerce.  Mr.  Ornstein,  the  director-gen- 
eral, with  a  full  staff,  many  of  whom  were  from  the  Turkish 
regie,  arrived  in  April.  It  was  understood  that  three  hundred 
Europeans  and  ten  thousand  Persians  would  be  employed  in 
the  factories  and  agencies  of  the  company.  Unprecedentedly 
large  salaries  were  paid.  Rumor  said  that  much  "  boodle  '* 
reached  the  hands  of  officials  and  priests.  The  outlay  excited 
the  wonder  of  the  people.  Soon  those  who  felt  themselves 
neglected  in  the  distribution  of  the  bounty  began  to  express 
opposition  to  the  company.  Two  thoughts  were  emphasized 
by  the  opponents — first,  that  the  price  of  tobacco  would  be  in- 


BUSINESS  LIFE  291 

creased,  and,  secondly,  that  it  would  be  defiled  and  rendered 
unfit  for  use  by  passing  through  the  hands  of  infidels.  The 
pohtical  and  commercial  rivals  of  England  were  not  slow  to 
encourage  the  discontent.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the  Per- 
sian government  had  been  outwitted ;  that  the  terms  of  the 
concession  were  too  favorable  to  the  monopoly.  Agitation 
was  begun,  too,  against  the  prime  minister,  the  Amir-i- Sultan, 
a  man  of  ability  and  great  influence  with  the  shah.  The 
"  Akhtar,"  the  Persian  newspaper  of  Constantinople,  attacked 
the  concession  and  was  suppressed.  Secret  tracts  were  circu- 
lated through  the  kingdom.  Anonymous  petitions,  asking  for 
reforms  in  the  finances,  the  abolition  of  polygamy,  rehgious 
freedom,  and  a  representative  system,  were  distributed.  The 
mails  were  searched  by  the  government,  and  prominent  men 
were  implicated  in  these  movements.  One  of  these,  a  molla, 
Jalal-i-Din,  was  arrested,  and  hastened,  under  guard,  beyond 
the  frontier.  Prince  Malcolm  Khan,  Persian  minister  to  Eng- 
land, addressed  a  telegram  to  the  shah,  denouncing  the  prime 
minister.  For  this  and  other  offenses  he  was  summarily  re- 
called and  his  titles  and  decorations  taken  from  him.  He  re- 
fused to  appear  before  the  throne,  and  has  since  remained  in 
exile.  Mustashar-i-Doulah,  ex-consul  to  Calcutta  and  foreign 
agent  for  Azerbijan,  was  also  ordered  under  arrest.  The  police 
sealed  his  house,  set  a  guard  about  it,  and,  notwithstanding 
his  venerable  age,  imprisoned  him.  All  his  papers  were  exam- 
ined. He  was  deprived  of  his  titles  and  pension,  and  taken  to 
Teheran  to  answer  to  the  charges.  The  Babis  were  implicated 
in  these  petitions,  and  about  forty  arrests  were  made  among 
them  in  Teheran. 

The  greatest  agitation  was  led  by  the  mollas.  As  interpre- 
ters of  the  canon  law  they  frequently  have  come  into  conflict 
with  the  civil  officers ;  but  their  power  had  been  curbed  and 
their  jurisdiction  limited  during  the  preceding  decades.  Now 
the  mollas  stood  forth  as  the  champions  of  the  people,  in  a 


292  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

cause  appealing  to  their  pockets,  their  prejudice,  and  their  sense 
of  justice.  The  popular  cries  were:  "We  are  to  be  taxed  for 
the  benefit  of  foreigners!  They  would  increase  the  price  of 
the  poor  man's  pipe!"  Considering  their  universal  and  con- 
stant use  of  tobacco — next  to  bread  their  great  necessity — it 
was  not  strange  that  excitement  grew  apace.  As  early  as  May 
19th,  Hadji  Sayid  Ali  Akbar,  a  molla  of  Shiraz,  began  to  de- 
claim against  Europeans,  and  especially  against  the  monopoly. 
The  government  ordered  his  arrest  and  expulsion.  The  mollas 
assembled  the  people  in  the  mosques  and  incited  them  to  re- 
sistance. A  mob  collected  to  prevent  the  arrest  of  the  molla, 
at  the  same  time  making  threats  of  attacking  the  Christians. 
They  were  quelled  by  the  fire  of  the  soldiers.  Some  were 
wounded,  and  two  women  and  a  child  were  killed.  A  still 
greater  agitation  occurred  in  Tabriz.  Here,  by  a  strange  over- 
sight, the  monopoly  had  failed  to  cultivate  the  good-will  of 
those  in  authority.  In  the  crisis  the  governor-general,  Amir-i- 
Nizam,  and  Hadji  Mirza  Javat  Aga,  the  chief  mujtehid,  two 
of  the  ablest  and  most  powerful  men  in  the  kingdom,  com- 
bined against  the  monopoly.  The  first  manifestation  of  popu- 
lar feeling  was  the  sacking  of  the  house  of  the  Persian  agent 
of  the  monopoly.  Placards  were  next  posted  threatening 
some  members  of  the  royal  family  and  the  general  of  the 
army.  Threats  were  made  that  if  the  sliah  did  not  abolish  the 
monopoly  appeal  would  be  made  to  Russia,  and  they  would 
give  their  allegiance  to  the  czar.  A  special  messenger  was  sent 
from  the  capital  to  quiet  the  priesthood  and  people.  Intense 
agitation  continued  for  months.  Finally,  as  the  only  preven- 
tive of  open  rebellion,  it  was  decided  to  partially  abolish  the 
monopoly.  It  was  canceled  for  the  province  of  Azerbijan, 
though  the  tobacco-crop  of  the  year  was  purchased  in  other 
parts  of  the  country. 

Meanwhile  there  was  an  incipient  rebellion  in  Kaladash,  in 
Mezanderan,  headed  by  the  mollas.     A  regiment  was  sent 


BUSINESS  LIFE  293 

against  the  malcontents.  Some  severe  fighting  occurred ;  sev- 
eral hundred  of  the  rebels  were  killed,  with  eighty  of  the  sol- 
diers. In  the  beginning  of  October  the  bazaars  at  Meshed 
were  closed,  and  there  were  three  days  of  excitement.  In 
December,  Molla  Hasan  Shirazi,  chief  mujtehid  of  Kerbela,  the 
Sahib-i-Zaman  or  Lord  of  the  Age — the  pope  of  the  Shiahs — 
issued  a  decree  stating  that,  "to-day  the  use  of  tobacco  is  pro- 
hibited in  every  form  by  the  Lord  of  the  Age."  His  interdict, 
addressed  to  all  the  faithful,  was  to  be  in  force  as  long  as  the 
monopoly  should  continue.  He  grounded  his  decree  on  a 
phrase  of  Mohammed :  "  Every  man  is  master  of  his  own 
property."  The  monopoly  contravened  this  dictum.  The 
effect  of  the  interdict  was  magical.  The  nation  laid  aside 
their  pipes.  Some  persons  maintained  that  the  decree  took 
away  their  desire  to  smoke.  Women,  even  in  the  shah's  pal- 
ace, ceased  to  use  the  weed.  The  soldiers  declared  that  they 
would  obey  their  mujtehid  rather  than  their  general,  and  that 
if  ordered  to  shoot  they  would  shoot  the  latter.  One  company, 
in  an  emergency,  pretended  that  their  powder  was  wet.  The 
opposition  daily  gathered  strength.  Placards  were  posted  in 
the  capital,  urging  the  Moslems  to  engage  in  a  holy  war,  and 
threatening  the  lives  of  Europeans.  There  was  great  danger. 
Many  confined  themselves  to  their  houses.  On  December 
27  th  the  shah  recognized  the  wisdom  of  yielding  to  the  popu- 
lar demand,  and  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  effect  that  his 
Majesty,  "extending  his  favor  to  his  whole  people,"  would 
abolish  the  monopoly  for  the  internal  trade,  and  that  it  would 
only  remain  in  effect  for  the  export  trade.  But  no  half-mea- 
sures would  satisfy  the  excited  priests  and  people,  who  were 
now  assured  of  their  power.  On  January  4,  1892,  a  mob  sur- 
rounded the  palace  of  the  shah  and  of  the  Naib-i-Sultanah, 
minister  of  war,  and  demanded  the  entire  and  complete  aboli- 
tion of  the  monopoly,  with  the  expulsion  of  its  agents  from  the 
country.     The  minister  of  war  first  tried  pacification.     It  was 


294  PERSUN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

reported  that  the  queen  mother  came  out  of  her  house,  bearing 
a  Koran,  and  asked  the  mob  to  disperse.  It  finally  became 
necessary  to  order  the  troops  to  attack  the  mob.  They  fired 
upon  them  and  scattered  the  rioters,  killing  some  of  them. 
Afterward,  it  is  said,  two  hundred  or  more  of  the  rioters  were 
secretly  arrested,  beheaded  in  prison,  and  their  bodies  thrown 
into  a  well.  During  the  following  days  troops  patroled  the  city 
for  public  safety,  and  the  Christian  population  was  in  special 
danger.  Revolution  was  imminent.  The  hearts  of  the  peo- 
ple were  alienated.  The  shah  appealed  to  the  Russian  minis- 
ter to  quiet  the  disturbances.  The  latter  called  the  leaders  of 
the  mob  and  advised  them  to  cease  rioting.  The  shah  and 
his  ministers  assembled  in  council  to  carry  on  negotiations 
with  the  mujtehid.  It  was  evident  that  Persia  is  a  hierarchy 
as  truly  as  she  is  a  monarchy.  Canossa  was  not  far  distant. 
The  manager  of  the  corporation  gave  the  following  account 
of  the  negotiations :  "  The  chief  mujtehid  imposed  the  follow- 
ing conditions  for  the  maintenance  of  order:  (i)  that  the  fam- 
ilies of  those  killed  should  be  indemnified;  (2)  that  protection 
should  be  granted  to  all  those  who  took  part  in  the  demonstra- 
tion ;  (3)  that  all  European  institutions  and  undertakings  in 
Persia  should  be  abolished.  Should  these  conditions  be  re- 
fused, the  mujtehid  threatened  to  appeal  to  the  Russian  minister 
for  their  enforcement.  On  the  Persian  government  represent- 
ing that  it  was  quite  impossible  to  comply  with  the  third  re- 
quest, it  was,  after  some  difficulty,  agreed  to  compromise  on 
the  basis  that  the  regie  or  monopoly  be  abolished  altogether. 
The  chief  mujtehid,  however,  made  demand  that  I  should  my- 
self state  that  the  regie  had  been  abolished,  and  offer  to  return 
all  tobacco  at  purchase  price.  I  refused  to  comply.  There- 
upon the  British  minister  represented  to  me  that  we  were  in 
the  presence  of  revolution,  and  that  my  refusal  might  endan- 
ger the  lives  of  the  European  colony.  I  therefore  consented." 
The  government  sent  the  following  notification  to  the  man- 


BUSINESS  LIFE  295 

ager:  "As  the  result  of  the  extraordinary  events  that  have 
taken  place  the  government  of  his  imperial  Majesty  has  help- 
lessly and  regretfully  canceled  the  monopoly  of  tobacco  which 
had  been  granted  to  your  company,"  and  closed  it  with  a  prom- 
ise of  indemnification.  Then  the  manager  issued  an  order  in- 
forming the  people  of  its  complete  abolition,  and  announcing 
to  vendors  that  they  could  come  and  buy  back  their  tobacco. 
As  soon  as  the  mujtehid  of  Kerbela  was  assured  that  the 
monopoly  was  a  thing  of  the  past,  he  issued  a  decree  canceling 
the  interdict ;  then  the  faithful  resumed  their  pipes,  assured  that 
it  was  the  will  of  Allah  that  their  tobacco  should  not  be  defiled 
by  infidel  hands. 

The  indemnity  was  settled  at  five  hundred  thousand  pounds 
payable  in  London,  with  the  condition  that  the  property  of  the 
company  in  Persia  be  turned  over  to  the  Persian  government. 
In  the  House  of  Commons  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  ex- 
penses of  the  corporation  had  been  fifty-five  thousand  pounds, 
and  the  assets  turned  over  to  the  Persian  government  had  been 
one  hundred  and  thirty-nine  thousand  pounds,  so  there  re- 
mained a  good  margin  of  profit  for  the  projectors.  The  neces- 
sary indemnity  money  not  being  at  hand,  the  Russian  govern- 
ment offered  to  advance  the  sum,  with  security  on  the  customs. 
At  this  England  took  alarm,  and  an  arrangement  was  made 
whereby  the  Imperial  Bank  of  Persia  loaned  the  amount  to  the 
Persian  government  at  six  per  cent,  payable  in  forty  years, 
and  secured  by  the  customs  of  southern  Persia.  Thus  Persia 
entered  the  ranks  of  debtor  nations. 

The  affair  was  a  disastrous  failure,  and  British  prestige  re- 
ceived a  severe  blow.  The  London  "Times  "  said  :  "  It  illus- 
trates our  inferiority  to  the  Russians  in  the  art  of  dealing  with 
Orientals."  To  Persia  the  financial  loss  and  even  the  tempo- 
rary disloyalty  were  slight  calamities  compared  with  the  retar- 
dation of  its  internal  development.  Such  monopolies  cannot 
be  approved,  though  it  would  be  better  to  have  development 


296  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

by  monopolies  than  stagnation  and  decay.  By  this  disaster  to 
the  government  the  wheels  of  progress  were  turned  backward. 
Foreign  capital  became  alarmed  and  withdrew  from  the  task 
which  native  capital  is  not  willing  or  able  to  undertake.  Many 
projects  were  indefinitely  suspended.  The  priesthood  at  the 
same  time  received  a  new  accession  of  power. 

Foreigners  were  rightly  apprehensive  for  their  personal  safety. 
The  European  employees  of  the  corporation  left  the  country 
as  quickly  as  possible.  The  very  sight  of  them  seemed  to 
irritate  the  populace  hke  a  red  flag  waved  before  a  mad  bull. 
Threats  of  violence  against  them  and  other  foreigners  were 
uttered  constantly,  and  bitterness  was  manifested  against  all 
Christians.  On  June  i6th  this  placard  was  posted  on  the 
streets  of  Tabriz :  "  Aga  Shirazi  thus  commands :  The  Prot- 
estants must  depart  from  the  city  in  twenty  days.  If  they  do 
not  we  must  make  \ht  jahad  [holy  war]  against  them."  This 
proclamation  was  torn  down  by  the  governor,  and  in  the  midst 
of  the  excitement  the  mujtehid  *  hastened  to  ascend  his  pulpit 
and  declare  it  a  forgery.  We  were  assured  that  the  placard 
was  a  political  move,  and  was  not  aimed  at  the  American  Mis- 
sion. By  a  strange  coincidence  it  was  posted  the  day  on  which 
several  missionaries  were  leaving  Persia,  and  shortly  before 
the  teachers  and  scholars  of  the  boarding-schools  dispersed  to 
their  homes  for  vacation,  so  that  some  received  the  impres- 
sion that  the  Protestants  were  fleeing  from  the  country.  The 
monopoly  agitation  undoubtedly  made  the  position  and  work 
of  all  Christians  and  foreigners  less  secure. 

In  connection  with  this  agitation  it  is  interesting  to  recall 
that  in  Mohammed  Shah's  time  a  rumor  spread  among  the  Per- 
sians that  the  iniidels  used  not  only  the  blood  but  the  bones 
of  animals  to  clarify  sugar.     Strong  protests  against  the  use 

*  Mujtehid  Hasan  Shirazi  died  at  the  beginning  of  1895,  i"  ^is  eighty- 
fourth  year. 


BUSINESS  LIFE  297 

of  sugar  began,  in  consequence,  to  be  heard  on  all  sides.  To 
quiet  the  outraged  sensibihties  of  the  people  and  put  himself 
right  before  them,  the  shah  ordered  that  no  more  loaf-sugar 
should  be  imported.  After  that  time  imported  sugar  was  de- 
clared to  be  clarified  solely  by  steam. 


CHAPTER   XVII 


MODERN    MISSIONS    IN    PERSIA 


MODERN  missions  in  Persia  were  begun  in  the  sixteenth 
century  by  Roman  Catholic  monks  among  the  Arme- 
nians at  Ispahan,  Tabriz,  Nakhejevan,  and  Erivan.  For  a  time 
they  were  quite  successful,  but  afterward  the  work  declined. 
Some  of  the  results  remain  at  Ispahan  and  in  Transcaucasia. 
An  effort  among  the  Nestorians  in  the  eighteenth  century  was 
more  successful.  The  metropolitan  of  Diarbekir  quarreled  with 
his  patriarch  and  was  consecrated  Catholic  patriarch  of  the 
Chaldeans.  Several  bishops  and  congregations  in  Salmas  and 
in  Urumia  followed  the  metropolitan  and  submitted  to  the 
pope.  The  largest  of  these  congregations  was  at  Khosrova, 
Salmas.  There,  as  well  as  at  Urumia,  large  missions  of 
French  Lazarists  and  nuns  were  established  in  1841.  Subse- 
quently stations  were  opened  at  Teheran  and  at  Tabriz.  The 
bishop  resides  at  Urumia,  having  the  rank  of  ambassador  from 
the  pope  to  the  shah.  There  are  from  eight  thousand  to  ten 
thousand  Roman  Catholics  in  Persia. 

The  earliest  Protestant  missionaries  were  Moravians  who,  in 
1747,  came  to  evangelize  the  Guebers.  They  were,  however, 
unable  to  remain,  owing  to  the  disturbed  condition  of  the 
country.  Henry  Martyn  was  the  pioneer  of  this  century,  and  in 
his  "  Memoir  "  are  narrated  his  discussions  with  the  mollas  of 
Shiraz  and  Ispahan.  He  left  as  his  legacy  the  Persian  version 
of  the  New  Testament.  Some  efforts  were  made  to  reach  the 
Jews  and  Mohammedans,  through  the  work  of  the  missionaries 

298 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  299 

of  the  London  Society  for  the  Jews,  and  also  through  the  Basle 
Society,  but  their  labors  were  afterward  abandoned. 

The  first  permanent  Protestant  mission  was  estabhshed,  in 
1835,  by  the  Rev.  Justin  Perkins  and  Asahel  Grant,  M.D.,  in 
Urumia,  by  the  American  Board.  It  was  called  the  Mission 
of  the  Nestorians.  Its  founders  and  their  successors  were  men 
eminent  for  piety  and  devotion,  as  well  as  for  ability.  They 
labored  for  twenty  years  to  reform  the  Nestorian  Church  from 
within,  aiming  to  bring  about  a  revival  of  spirittial  and  evan- 
gelical religion.  This  purpose  was  abandoned  with  regret 
when  circumstances  required  the  organization  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Church.  This  was  effected  in  1856,  with  one  hundred 
and  fifty-six  communicants — a  number  which  had  increased  to 
seven  hundred  and  sixty-three  in  1870.  In  1869  plans  were 
made  for  the  enlargement  of  the  mission,  whose  name  was  then 
changed  to  the  Mission  to  Persia.  Shortly  afterward  it  was 
transferred  to  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  at 
the  time  of  the  Reunion.  In  187 1  Teheran  was  occupied,  as 
was  also  Tabriz  in  1873,  and  Hamadan  in  1881  ;  and  the  mis- 
sion was  then  divided  into  the  Eastern  Persian  Mission,  com- 
prising Urumia  and  Tabriz,  to  which  have  been  added  Salmas 
station  in  1885,  and  Mosul,  in  Turkey,  in  1892. 

In  1869  the  Rev.  Robert  Bruce,  D.D.,  began  mission  work 
in  Ispahan,  which  was  subsequently  taken  in  charge  by  the 
Church  Missionary  Society.  Later  on  Bagdad  was  occupied. 
This  is  known  as  the  Central  Persian  Mission. 

In  addition  to  these  missionary  posts  there  is  stationed  at 
Urumia  and  Kochanes  (the  seat  of  Mar  Shimun,  the  Nestorian 
patriarch)  the  special  mission  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
It  is  extremely  ritualistic,  refuses  the  name  Protestant,  and 
has  for  its  avowed  object  the  strengthening  of  tlie  Nestorian 
Church  to  resist  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Catholics  on  the 
one  hand  and  of  Protestants  on  the  other.  It  has  a  strong 
force  of  missionaries — "  brothers  "  and  "  sisters  " — who  wear 


300  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

the  garb  of  their  order,  and  are  under  temporary  vows  of  celi- 
bacy and  obedience.  How  far  it  will  succeed  in  its  object  is 
not  yet  evident.  In  lawsuits  against  the  Catholic  Mission,  to 
recover  church  properties,  the  Anglicans  have  been  unsuccess- 
ful. They  have  hampered  the  evangelical  work  in  many  ways, 
but  the  annual  additions  to  the  Protestant  communion  show 
no  diminution.  In  the  controversy  engendered  by  their  pres- 
ence its  members  have  been  developed  in  moral  stamina  and 
confirmed  in  doctrinal  stability.  The  Anglican  missionaries 
are  indoctrinating  their  students  with  high  sacerdotal  ideas, 
and  will  probably  build  up  a  party  in  the  Nestorian  Church  in- 
termediate between  the  evangelical  and  the  papal  communions. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  purpose  of  these  missions,  it 
is  evident  that  the  restrictions  of  the  government  have  largely 
hindered  all  of  them  from  evangelizing  Mohammedans.  Mrs. 
Bishop  criticizes  the  church  as  slothful  in  its  eiforts  to  evan- 
gelize Persia.  She  says :  "  The  absolute  fact  is  that  Christian 
nations  have  not  shown  any  zeal  in  communicating  the  bless- 
ings of  Christianity  to  Persia.  The  populous  shores  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  the  great  tribes  of  the  lower  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
the  Ilyats  of  Persia,  the  important  cities  of  Shiraz,  Yezd, 
Meshed,  Kashan,  Kum,  and  Kermanshah,  are  untouched  by 
Christian  effort.  Propagandism  on  a  scale  so  contemptible  im- 
presses intelligent  Moslems  as  a  sham,  and  is  an  injury  to  the 
Christianity  which  it  professes  to  represent."  On  the  other 
hand,  ex-Minister  Benjamin  commends  the  missionaries  for 
their  prudence  in  yielding  to  the  injunctions  of  the  authorities 
and  in  not  assuming  an  aggressive  attitude.  I  cannot  enter 
at  length  into  this  question,  though  I  shall  mention  two  facts 
which  show  the  attitude  of  Persia  with  reference  to  Christian 
propaganda  among  Mohammedans.  One  is  the  celebrated 
case  of  Mirza  Ibrahim.  The  latter  was  a  convert  from  Islam 
who  was  baptized  in  Khoi,  and  driven  out  by  his  family.  He 
was  arrested  in  Urumia  while  telling  others  of  his  new-found 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  301 

faith.  When  brought  before  the  suparast  and  governor  he 
boldly  confessed  Christ  and  maintained  the  truth  of  the  gos- 
pel. He  was  beaten,  threatened,  and  imprisoned.  He  was 
offered  money  if  he  would  forsake  his  faith.  Finally  he  was 
taken  to  Tabriz  under  guard  and  imprisoned,  and  his  appeals 
to  the  shah  for  release  were  vain.  After  suffering  the  horrors 
of  a  Persian  prison  for  almost  a  year  he  was  choked  to  death 
by  his  fellow-prisoners,  with  the  connivance  of  the  authorities. 
A  number  of  criminals,  one  after  another,  took  him  by  the 
throat,  saying,  "  Declare  that  Ali  is  true  and  Jesus  false." 
He  answered,  "  No ;  Jesus  is  true.  Jesus  is  true,  though  you 
slay  me."  After  his  martyrdom  the  grand  vizier  observed, 
"Our  law  is  that  the  pervert  shall  be  put  to  death ;  it  was  a 
mistake  to  imprison  him — he  should  have  been  executed  im- 
mediately." 

The  attitude  of  the  government  is  clearly  seen  in  its  treat- 
ment of  the  German  missionaries,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Kohle  and  Dr. 
Swenkle,  who  came  to  Persia  in  1894  to  evangelize  the  Jews. 
While  en  route  to  their  field,  Urumia,  they  had  conversations 
with  certain  Mohammedans,  whose  acceptance  of  the  truths  of 
Christianity  deeply  impressed  them.  They  wrote  an  account 
of  their  experiences,  which  was  published  in  Germany  and  fell 
under  the  eyes  of  the  Persian  government.  A  decree  for  their 
expulsion  was  issued,  and  ten  days  granted  them  in  which 
to  sell  their  effects.  The  German  minister  plenipotentiary 
strangely  consented  to  this  summary  sentence,  simply  request- 
ing an  extension  of  time  to  thirty  days.  He  might  have  en- 
joined the  missionaries  to  confine  their  work  to  the  Jews,  and 
maintained  their  right  to  do  so  on  an  equality  with  the  citizens 
of  other  countries.  Within  the  month  Mr.  Kohle  died  of 
typhoid  fever,  and  Dr.  Swenkle  withdrew. 

Turning  now  to  the  non-Mohammedan  races,  we  find  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  Persia  scattered  remnants  of  fire-worshipers,  Jews, 
Armenians,  and  Nestorians.     It  is  the  settled  policy  of  the 


302  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

shah's  government  to  grant  full  protection  and  liberty  to  mis- 
sionaries laboring  among  these  races.  Missionaries  have  cause 
for  gratitude  to  God  and  to  the  shah  that  they  have  been  well 
protected  while  living  in  the  midst  of  a  fanatical  Mohammedan 
population. 

In  the  minds  of  some  people  there  is  a  stigma  of  proselytism 
attaching  to  missions  among  Oriental  Christians.  The  neces- 
sity for  such  work  is  twofold.  It  is  necessary  for  the  sake  of 
these  churches.  The  Armenians  and  Nestorians  are  living  in 
spiritual  darkness  and  need  a  new  setting  forth  of  the  gospel 
for  their  enlightenment.  Their  clergy  do  not  teach  or  preach 
to  the  people,  and  Christians  of  other  names  are  under  obliga- 
tion to  them,  as  to  other  races.  Again,  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity on  Mohammedans  will  never  be  felt  until  the  Chris- 
tians dwelling  among  them  realize  the  duty  of  manifesting 
Christ  in  lives  of  holiness  and  righteousness,  as  well  as  of  wit- 
nessing for  his  truth.  Only  a  revivified  and  reformed  church 
can  impress  Islam  with  the  superiority  of  the  religion  of  Jesus. 
These  scattered  communities  have  been  preserved  in  God's 
providence  in  a  remarkable  manner  to  be  a  future  leaven  of 
the  gospel.  They  occupy  strategic  positions  in  the  heart  of 
Islam,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  wise  to  put  forth  an  amount  of 
energy  and  labor  in  their  evangelization  which  is  largely  dis- 
proportionate to  their  numbers  or  importance  among  the  races 
of  the  world.  The  same  reasoning  applies  to  the  work  among 
the  Jews  of  Persia,  and  we  have  the  sure  word  of  prophecy 
that  their  turning  to  Jesus  will  be  as  life  from  the  dead. 

In  a  certain  sense  all  residents  in  Persia  from  Christian 
lands  are  missionaries,  either  for  good  or  for  evil.  Diploma- 
tists and  tradesmen,  as  well  as  missionaries,  are  continually 
making  impressions  on  the  Persians  by  their  conduct  and 
manner  of  life.  These  impressions  are  sometimes  curious 
and  amusing.  In  a  conversation  with  some  village  soldiers 
one  asked  me  if  I  knew  of  dog-worshipers.     I  told  him  I  had 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  303 

heard  of  fire-worshipers,  cow-worshipers,  etc.,  but  not  of  dog- 
worshipers.  He  said  he  had  seen  some  in  Teheran.  Some 
foreigners  there  had  fed  dogs  at  their  tables,  washed  and 
clothed  them,  fondled  them  in  their  laps,  and  took  them  rid- 
ing in  their  carriages ;  were  they  not  dog- worshipers?  So  he 
interpreted  the  lap-dog  craze.  Even  burial  of  Christians  with 
the  clothes  worn  in  life  is  supposed  to  have  a  religious  purpose, 
and  the  firing  of  salutes  at  a  soldier's  funeral  to  be  intended 
to  drive  away  devils.  The  wearing  of  spectacles  by  so  many 
foreigners  has  been  mistaken  for  a  badge  of  Christianity.  An 
inquirer  once  asked  for  his  spectacles  after  embracing  the 
Christian  faith. 

One  impression  which  the  people  have  received  is  that 
drunkenness  is  permitted  in  a  Christian,  and  is  therefore  not 
disgraceful.  A  story  is  told  of  an  English  captain  whose  ship 
touched  at  Bushire.  The  captain  took  a  horseback  ride 
through  the  city,  but  made  such  a  poor  display  of  horseman- 
ship as  to  astonish  and  amuse  the  people.  The  next  day  a 
vendor  of  fruits  came  on  board  the  ship  and  said  to  the  cap- 
tain, "  I  have  made  such  an  explanation  as  to  free  you  from  all 
reproach.  There  is  no  one  who  does  not  think  that  you  are  an 
expert  rider,  as  becomes  one  of  a  nation  of  horsemen."  "  And 
how  did  you  do  that?  "  asked  the  captain.  "  I  told  them  you 
were  drunk  " !  As  a  part  of  his  religion  it  was  considered  no 
disgrace. 

The  people  acquire  curious  notions,  too,  of  the  missionaries, 
and  of  the  means  they  are  using  to  make  converts.  Some- 
times they  think  they  are  working  by  a  kind  of  magic.  When 
a  Jew,  Rabbi  Benjamin,  of  Mianduab,  professed  faith  in  Jesus, 
the  Jews  took  him  to  the  river-bank  and  ducked  him  to  exor- 
cize the  evil  spirit  which  they  supposed  had  been  cast  into  him. 
When  some  Jews  in  Hamadan  accepted  Christianity  the  report 
was  spread  abroad  that  the  pastor  had  put  some  drug  into  the 
tea  he  gave  them  to  drink,  and  had  thus  turned  their  heads. 


304  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

Some  are  suspicious  that  they  may  be  converted  even  by 
machinery.  A  story  is  told  by  a  missionary  of  a  woman  who 
came  to  visit  her  and  sat  down  in  a  rocking-chair.  It  rocked 
backward,  so  she  drew  her  feet  up  under  her.  In  doing  so  the 
chair  tilted  forward  and  she  was  pitched  on  the  floor.  She 
sprang  up  and  ran  out  of  the  room,  screaming,  "  Vy,  vy!  I 
have  got  into  one  of  the  converting-machines."  Nothing  could 
induce  her  to  approach  that  Christian-making  machine  again. 

Some  of  the  people  have  the  idea  that  money  is  the  chief 
instrument  used  by  missionaries.  Help  to  the  needy,  food  to 
the  famished,  and  assistance  to  the  persecuted  are,  it  is  sup- 
posed, given  by  missionaries,  not  as  bribes,  but  as  a  loving  min- 
istry of  charity.  Orientals,  with  their  mercenary  ideas,  often 
misunderstand  such  actions,  and  men  come  from  unworthy 
motives  to  missionaries  of  all  names  and  deceive  them.  One 
convert,  after  a  time,  requested  money  and  was  refused.  He 
replied  with  indignation  that  he  supposed,  when  he  became  a 
Christian,  that  whenever  he  asked  for  five  hundred  tomans  he 
would  receive  them ;  and  that  as  a  brother  he  would  be  a 
sharer  in  the  community  of  goods,  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  the 
apostles.  How  to  fulfil  the  demands  of  Christian  benevolence 
and  yet  avoid  appealing  to  mercenary  motives,  is  one  of  the 
difficult  problems  of  missions. 

Nor  do  Protestant  missionaries  aim  to  make  converts  by 
offers  of  political  protection.  Several  English  writers,  espe- 
cially some  of  ritualistic  proclivities,  have  lately  declared 
that  the  protection  and  aid  rendered  to  the  American  Mission 
by  British  officials  have  helped  to  undermine  the  Nestorian 
Church,  and  have  been,  therefore,  "  mischievous  "  and  "  short- 
sighted." It  is  true  that  her  Majesty's  government  graciously 
and  ungrudgingly  accorded  the  Americans  protection  during 
the  half-century  of  the  mission  in  which  the  United  States  was 
without  diplomatic  representation  in  Persia,  and  the  American 
government  and  the  missionaries  have  often  expressed  their  ap- 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  305 

preciation  of  the  favor.  It  is  strange  now  to  read  the  words 
of  these  writers  casting  in  the  teeth  of  the  recipients  their  ob- 
hgation,  and  regretting  that  the  favor  was  rendered.  But  it 
is  a  pleasure  to  know  that  these  complainers  do  not  represent 
the  spirit  of  Great  Britain.  When  Dr.  Perkins  and  Dr.  Grant 
estabhshed  the  mission,  Sir  Henry  Ellis,  British  minister  to 
Persia,  requested  them  to  apply  to  him  for  any  assistance  he 
might  at  any  time  be  able  to  render  them,  and  for  British  protec- 
tion. Once,  in  granting  a  passport,  he  wrote:  "I  feel  confi- 
dent that  I  act  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  her  Majesty's 
government,  to  whom  the  proposed  introduction  of  the  pure 
doctrine  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  country  cannot  fail 
to  be  a  matter  of  deep  and  serious  interest.  ...  I  beg  leave  to 
assure  you  of  my  most  anxious  wishes  for  the  success  of  your 
exertions.  .  .  .  Though  a  churchman  myself,  I  bid  God-speed 
to  every  pious  Protestant  engaged  in  this  work."  Colonel 
C.  E.  Stewart,  C.B.,  CLE.,  C.M.G.,  lately  consul-general  at 
Tabriz,  wrote  :  "  My  daily  prayer  is  that  I  may  be  of  some  as- 
sistance in  furthering  the  kingdom  of  God."  As  long  as  the 
history  of  the  mission  is  read,  the  kindness  and  efficient  help 
of  a  line  of  noble  Britons,  from  Sir  Henry  Ellis  and  Sir  John 
Campbell  to  Colonel  Stewart,  will  be  remembered  with  grati- 
tude. It  has  been  the  glory  of  Great  Britain  that  she  has 
been  a  bulwark  to  the  evangelical  church  of  Christ  through- 
out the  world ;  and  it  would  be  lamentable  indeed  if  the  pro- 
gress of  ritualism  had  changed  that  attitude. 

The  same  writers  also  make  it  a  ground  of  accusation  that 
Americans  are  known  to  some  extent  as  English  among  the 
partially  informed  in  Persia.  They  even  accuse  the  Americans 
of  deception,  and  of  trying  to  increase  their  influence  bypass- 
ing under  the  name  of  English.  The  confusion  in  the  popu- 
lar mind  would  be  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  the  use  of  the 
English  language,  by  being  under  English  protection,  and 
by  the  natural  tendency  of  the  people  to  use  a  familiar  word 


306  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS 

rather  than  the  term  "  American,"  which  was  almost  unkno^vn 
in  Persia  six  decades  ago.  But  there  is  a  deeper  reason.  It 
is  a  universal  Oriental  mistake  to  confound  racial  and  religious 
names.  In  Persia  a  Roman  Catholic  is  popularly  called  a 
Frank  (French),  an  Orthodox  Catholic  a  Russ,  and  a  Protes- 
tant an  Inglees ;  that  is,  from  the  most  conspicuous  nation 
which  represents  each  form  of  belief.  This  arises  from  an  error 
of  thought  as  well  as  expression,  and  is  an  injury  to  the  progress 
of  the  truth.  For  instance,  when  an  Armenian  Gregorian  in 
Persia  accepts  the  Orthodox  confession,  people  say  he  has  be- 
come a  Russian,  and  as  a  corollary  think  that  he  has  ceased 
to  be  an  Armenian,  not  being  able  to  see  that  all  the  Armenians 
in  Tiu-key  and  Persia  might  become  Orthodox  in  ecclesias- 
tical relation  and  not  lose  their  race  existence  any  more  than 
the  Bulgarians  do,  who  are  one  with  the  Russians  in  religion. 
So  Armenians  and  Nestorians  who  become  Protestants  are  re- 
garded popularly  as  Inglees.  An  Armenian  Protestant  refused 
to  pay  tribute  to  the  Gregorian  bishop,  and  gave  the  absurd 
reason,  "  I  have  become  Inglees."  The  missionaries  have 
made  considerable  effort  to  correct  so  false  an  idea,  and  to 
impress  upon  the  people  the  fundamental  distinction  between 
race  and  religion.  They  wish  their  work  completely  separated 
from  political  names  and  issues.  Those  writers  who  hold  that 
American  missionaries,  by  some  "  deception,"  have  originated 
this  usage  show  their  ignorance  of  Oriental  modes  of  thought 
and  expression.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  doctrines  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  as  taught  by  the  American  missionaries  repre- 
sent more  truly  British  Christianity  and  the  English  name  than 
ritualism  does.  Neither  need  it  be  a  matter  of  regret  to  our 
British  friends  if  the  ministry  to  the  sick,  the  relief  of  the  fam- 
ished, the  efforts  for  education  and  evangelization,  and  Chris- 
tian lives  have  redounded  to  the  credit  of  the  English  name 
before  the  Persian  people. 

At  times  the  American  Mission  has  been  under  the  pro- 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  307 

tection  of  France.  At  other  times  it  has  received  decided 
help  from  Russian  officials.  When  England  was  at  war  with 
Persia,  and  it  was  proposed  to  mob  the  missionaries,  Chevalier 
Khanikoff  made  known  to  the  Persian  authorities  that  they 
were  under  the  protection  of  Russia,  and  harm  was  averted. 
When  the  Jesuits  had  laid  their  plot  to  have  the  Protestants 
expelled,  the  Russian  ambassador,  Count  Medem,  thwarted 
their  plans. 

The  strength  of  Protestant  missionaries  in  Persia  lies,  then, 
in  the  fact  that  they  are  known  to  have  no  political  object. 
They  have  no  intrigues  to  engage  in,  nor  civil  policies  to 
antagonize  or  to  promote.  They  have  often  been  called  upon 
to  appeal  on  behalf  of  the  oppressed  and  persecuted,  and  have 
been  successful  in  securing  relief,  often  by  the  assistance  of 
Christian  diplomatists ;  but  they  have  not  made  their  friendly 
aid  contingent  on  the  faith  of  the  one  in  distress.  Concern- 
ing this  the  Rev.  B.  Labaree,  D.D.,  of  the  Armenian  Mission, 
writes:  "Through  the  countenance  and  support  of  British  offi- 
cials in  Persia  the  representations  of  the  missionaries  in  behalf 
of  aggrieved  Christians  have  often  secured  efficient  redress. 
Many  a  miscreant  has  been  sent  up  to  the  capital  or  otherwise 
punished  who  would  have  escaped  free  but  for  this  interposi- 
tion of  the  missionaries.  Their  very  presence,  and  the  general 
belief  that  their  truthful  reports  of  outrages  upon  the  Chris- 
tians would  echo  back  from  the  judgment-halls  of  Tabriz  and 
Teheran  for  the  punishment  of  the  guilty,  have  served  in  a 
considerable  degree  as  a  check  upon  lawless  Mohammedans. 
It  has  been  an  irksome,  unpleasant  service.  We  have  often 
felt  it  an  incubus  upon  our  purely  spiritual  work.  But  duty 
to  the  oppressed  forbade  our  shirking  the  responsibility.  That 
this  political  influence  has  been  abused  for  partizan  ends  I 
boldly  deny.  From  the  most  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
facts  I  aver  that  it  has  been  wielded  by  us  in  the  interests  of 
justice  and  right  alone ;  that  all  parties  who  have  appealed  to 


308  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

it  in  need  have  shared  impartially  in  its  benefit ;  nor  has  it  been 
exercised  to  weaken  or  tyrannize  over  the  old  church  party  in 
any  form.  It  has  been  the  principle  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  to  help  only  such  as  belonged  to  or  promised  to 
join  their  communion.  But  the  Presbyterian  missionaries  have 
never  allowed  any  such  rule  of  action.  Did  weeping  parents 
flee  to  them  with  the  tale  of  a  daughter's  forcible  abduction  ;  did 
a  wife  or  a  mother  come  to  the  mission  with  disheveled  hair 
and  outcries  of  grief,  bringing  the  bloody  clothes  of  a  husband 
or  a  son  ruthlessly  murdered  ;  did  a  body  of  priests  and  laymen 
from  some  oppressed  village  come  telling  of  their  landlord's 
rapacity  or  cruelty,  it  was  never  a  question  what  was  their 
creed.  Jew  or  Christian,  Protestant,  Old  Nestorian,  or  Arme- 
nian, if  right  and  justice  were  clearly  on  their  side,  whatever 
aid  was  within  the  power  of  the  American  missionaries  to  be- 
stow was  freely  given  them.  It  was  in  the  interest  of  an  ab- 
ducted Armenian  girl,  not  a  member  of  our  congregation,  that 
our  missionary,  Mr.  Edward  Breath,  laid  down  his  life,  spend- 
ing one  night  in  her  behalf  in  the  cholera-infected  city,  and  in 
twenty-four  hours  thereafter  he  was  dead. 

"  Were  any  further  statement  needed  to  show  the  disinter- 
ested nature  of  this  branch  of  our  mission  service  it  might  be 
furnished  from  the  '  Blue  Book '  of  the  English  government, 
from  the  reports  therein  of  British  officials  who  have  again  and 
again  testified  to  the  truly  philanthropic  labors  of  the  Ameri- 
can missionaries." 

Protestantism  uses  as  instruments  to  make  converts  neither 
magic,  money,  machinery,  nor  ministers  of  state.  The  means 
on  which  it  relies  is  the  Word  of  God,  translated,  read,  taught, 
preached,  and  made  "  quick  and  powerful "  by  the  Spirit  of 
God.  To  preach  and  translate  the  Word  of  God  requires  first 
of  all,  on  the  part  of  the  missionaries,  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  languages.  In  Persia  each  of  the  three  great  families 
of  languages  is  represented,  and  the  acquisition  of  more  than 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  309 

one  language  is  necessary  for  the  best  work.  At  Urumia  the 
Syriac  and  Turkish  are  employed;  at  Mosul  the  Syriac  and 
Arabic ;  at  Tabriz  and  Salmas  the  Turkish  and  Armenian ;  at 
Teheran,  Hamadan,  and  Ispahan  the  Persian  and  Armenian ; 
at  Bagdad  the  Arabic.  Familiarity  with  the  vernacular  is  ex- 
pected of  every  missionary.  No  work  is  carried  on  by  inter- 
preters. Of  all  these  languages  Persian  is  the  easiest  and  the 
sweetest.  The  acquisition  of  these  languages  is  an  arduous 
task,  and  ridiculous  mistakes  are  at  times  made  by  missionaries 
when  at  first  inadequately  acquainted  with  the  foreign  tongues 
they  use.  A  few  examples  of  these  may  be  cited.  Wishing 
to  order  some  meat  [at),  one  said,  "  Bring  me  some  ct"  (dog). 
Another,  in  preaching,  wished  to  say,  "  He  raised  a  load;"  he 
said,  "  He  burst  himself."  In  the  Armenian  language  a  lady 
wished  to  ask,  "Is  the  wife  [gen]  in  the  house?"  The  man 
quickly  started  and  brought  in  wine  [gene).  Another,  handing 
the  slate  to  a  girl  whose  problem  was  wrong,  said,  "  Correct 
it!"  She  saw  several  of  the  girls  smiling,  and  found  she  had 
said,  "  Oil  it,"  using  the  w'ord  yi/g/ier  for  oiighcr.  A  minister, 
in  prayer,  instead  of  the  tema  "pitiful  God,"  said  "pitiable 
God."  An  Armenian,  in  announcing  in  Turkish  an  offering 
for  missions,  and  intending  to  say,  "for  the  work  of  God  in 
foreign  lands,"  said,  "for  the  work  of  the  foreign  God"! 

One  of  the  first  aims  of  the  missions  has  been  to  put  the 
Bible  into  the  languages  of  all  the  people.  This  has  been  largely 
accomplished.  Henry  Martyn's  Persian  version  of  the  New 
Testament  was  followed  by  Dr.  Green's  version  of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  whole  has  been  lately  revised  by  Dr.  Bruce. 
The  Bible  in  Turki  for  the  Tartar  Turks  of  northern  Persia  was 
translated  by  the  Rev.  Abraham  Amirkhaniantz,  of  Tiflis,  and 
revised  by  Dr.  John  N.  Wright,  of  Salmas.  The  Armenian 
versions  in  Ararat  and  Constantinople  dialects  are  both  used. 
The  modern  Syriac  version  was  prepared  by  Dr.  Perkins,  and 
has  lately  been  revised  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Labaree.     The  De- 


310  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

litzsch  Hebrew  New  Testament  is  used  among  the  Jews,  and  the 
Arabic  Bible  by  learned  Mohammedans.  The  only  work  on 
this  line  remaining  to  be  done  is  a  Kurdish  translation.  In  the 
preparation  of  these  translations,  as  well  as  in  their  distribu- 
tion, the  British  and  Foreign  and  the  American  Bible  societies 
have  been  both  ahke  engaged.  They  have  their  agencies  es- 
tablished in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  colporteurs  itin- 
erating through  the  outlying  regions.  A  considerable  number 
of  religious  works  and  text-books  have  been  published  in  Syriac, 
and  a  few  in  Armenian,  Persian,  and  Turki. 

Medical  work  has  been  specially  emphasized  in  the  Persian 
missions.  At  each  station  both  of  the  Presbyterian  and  the 
Church  missions  are  physicians  and  dispensaries ;  while  four 
American  lady  physicians  and  fully  equipped  hospitals  are  at 
Urumia  and  Teheran,  with  partially  equipped  ones  at  other 
stations.  By  these  physicians  tens  of  thousands  of  patients 
are  treated  annually  in  the  dispensaries,  a  knowledge  of  true 
medical  science  is  diffused,  native  physicians  are  trained,  espe- 
cially at  Urumia,  prejudices  are  dissipated,  hearts  opened  to  re- 
ceive the  truth,  and  many  opportunities  found  for  sowing  the 
seed  of  the  kingdom.  The  physicians  are  doing  good  work 
in  maintaining  cordial  relations  with  the  authorities,  and  thus 
are  able  to  relieve  the  oppressed  and  persecuted,  as  well  as  to 
shield  the  mission  from  the  machinations  of  its  enemies.  Lady 
physicians  have  been  cordially  welcomed  by  the  Persians.  A 
Persian  fable  relates  that  a  queen  at  childbirth  desired  a  doc- 
tor to  be  sent  for.  The  king  observed  that  a  doctor  was  not 
necessary,  for  he  had  been  out  to  the  tent-dwellers  and  had  seen 
the  women  give  birth  to  children  without  the  aid  of  a  doctor. 
Afterward  the  queen,  having  commanded  her  people  not  to 
irrigate  the  garden,  it  withered,  and  the  king  scolded.  She 
replied,  "I  have  seen  the  forests  grow  without  being  watered; 
why  cannot  the  garden  do  the  same?  "     The  lady  physicians 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  311 

will  more  and  more  be  a  boon  and  a  blessing  to  suffering 
womankind  in  Persia. 

The  Bible  and  medical  work  are  beneficently  directed 
toward  the  whole  population.  The  third  great  agency,  edu- 
cation, is  practically  confined  to  the  non- Moslems,  on  account 
of  the  prohibition  of  the  government.  The  American  Mission 
has  one  hundred  and  twenty  schools,  with  thirty-four  hundred 
and  seventy  pupils.  Eleven  of  these  are  schools  of  a  high 
grade,  with  one  hundred  and  ninety-seven  boys  and  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty-two  girls  as  boarders.  In  Julfa,  Ispahan,  are 
flourishing  schools,  with  four  hundred  and  twenty-five  pupils  in 
attendance.  Already  some  of  their  graduates  have  been  en- 
abled by  a  good  knowledge  of  the  English  language  to  procure 
lucrative  positions.  The  educational  work  of  Urumia  station 
is  well  organized.  Its  basis  is  an  extended  system  of  common 
schools,  reaching  the  villages  on  the  plain  and  the  hamlets  in  the 
mountains.  Several  high  schools  occupy  central  localities, 
while  crowning  the  whole  are  the  Fiske  Seminary  and  the 
college,  with  its  academic,  industrial,  theological,  and  medical 
departments.  The  spirit  as  well  as  the  curriculum  of  these 
schools,  and  of  those  in  Tabriz,  Teheran,  Hamadan,  Salmas, 
and  other  places,  is  evangehstic.  Thorough  Bible  instruction 
prepares  the  hearts  of  the  pupils  for  conversion  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  so  that  the  schools  are  nurseries  of  the  church  as  well  as 
training-institutions  from  which  enlightened  and  well-equipped 
evangelists,  teachers,  and  preachers  have  gone  forth  with  the 
gospel  in  their  lives  and  on  their  lips.  One  hundred  and  sixty 
teachers  and  preachers  have  been  graduated  from  the  Urumia 
College.  An  industrial  school  of  carpentering  and  blacksmith- 
ing  is  conducted  in  Urumia ;  and  in  Ispahan  a  woolen  factory 
is  carried  on.  Industrial  education  is  prosecuted  with  the  ob- 
ject of  furnishing  the  people  with  better  means  of  self-support. 

Turning  now  to  the  direct  evangelistic  work  of  the  missions. 


312  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

In  this  the  missionaries  are  reinforced  by  about  a  hundred 
preachers  and  evangehsts  and  ten  Bible-women.  This  work 
has  two  stages — first,  the  pioneer  work,  and,  secondly,  the 
organized  work.  During  the  first  stage  an  evangelist  itiner- 
ates, or  is  stationed  in  a  city  or  a  village  to  reach  the  people 
by  personal  contact  and  conversation  in  their  homes,  in  the 
bazaars,  and  at  their  various  occupations.  Results  are  often 
long  delayed ;  at  other  times  they  are  speedily  manifested. 
Rev.  Samuel  A.  Rhea  once  stopped  at  Hasan,  a  village  in 
Kurdistan,  where  he  entered  into  conversation  wath  the  Nes- 
torian  kand-khuda.  The  latter's  earnest  inquiry  concerning 
truth  was  prolonged  into  the  night,  until  finally  his  heart  was 
convinced  and  he  accepted  evangehcal  doctrine.  This  con- 
version was  the  beginning  of  a  flourishing  church  in  that  place. 

The  work  among  the  Nestorians  has  a  most  interesting  his- 
tory and  shows  good  results.  It  has  been  marked  by  manifes- 
tations of  the  Spirit's  power  and  by  times  of  refreshing,  when 
deep  conviction  of  sin,  earnest  seeking  after  salvation,  and  an 
intense  joy  of  reconciliation  with  God  characterized  the  con- 
verts. Some  of  them  have  reached  a  high  plane  of  spiritual 
attainment. 

A  remarkable  instance  is  that  of  Rabi  Oshana,  a  young 
man  upon  whom  the  Spirit  of  God  rested  with  special  power. 
Early  in  his  career  he  was  awakened  to  his  own  personal  need 
and  the  need  of  the  church  for  greater  consecration.  He  gave 
himself  to  the  work  of  an  evangelist,  Avithout  salary,  and  organ- 
ized a  praying  band  of  young  men,  who  under  his  leadership 
went  from  village  to  village  denouncing  sin  and  calling  the  un- 
converted to  repentance,  and  Christians  especially  to  a  higher 
degree  of  spiritual  life.  He  was  used  as  an  instrument  by  God 
in  bringing  about  some  blessed  revivals.  His  influence  reached 
a  wide  circle,  and  his  early  death  is  lamented  as  a  great  loss 
to  vital  Christianity  in  Persia. 

As  another  instance  of  the  power  of  the  gospel  let  me  cite 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  313 

the  case  of  Hatoon  of  Degala.  She  had  been  a  pupil  in  the 
seminary,  but  was  dismissed  for  bad  conduct.  Afterward  she 
kept  a  low  grog-shop,  where  she  sold  liquor  to  Mussulmans. 
In  the  midst  of  a  revival  in  Degala  she  was  convicted  of  her 
sins,  and  their  weight  crushed  her  to  the  ground.  With  tears 
of  penitence  and  humihation  she  confessed,  saying,  "I  am  the 
crown  of  thorns  that  pierced  my  Saviour's  brow ;  no  one  is  like 
me."  She  became  a  reformed  woman,  and  out  of  her  deep  ex- 
perience began  to  tell  others  the  story  of  her  Saviour.  After- 
ward she  regained  her  former  reputation  and  became  one  of 
the  best  teachers  of  the  young  of  her  sex  in  the  village  schools. 
A  spirit  of  dependence  and  lack  of  self-support  has  some- 
what characterized  these  converts.  The  conduct  of  some  in 
quickly  changing  back  and  forward  between  Nestorianism, 
Catholicism,  Rituahsm,  and  Protestantism  has  given  them  in 
some  quarters  the  undeserved  reputation  of  being  time-servers. 
In  the  main,  however,  they  are  true  and  sincere.  An  exam- 
ple will  manifest  the  character  of  some  of  them.  Usta  Pera, 
a  carpenter  of  Urumia,  was  wicked  and  a  drunkard.  He  was 
afterward  converted  and  became  a  changed  man,  ever  ready 
to  suffer  persecution  for  his  faith.  His  reputation  became 
such  that  it  was  said,  "  You  will  find  this  man  true  always,  in 
all  things."  His  only  daughter,  educated  in  the  seminary, 
was  accustomed  to  read  the  Bible  to  him,  but  she  was  stricken 
down  with  the  cholera.  He  then  made  several  attempts  to 
learn  to  read,  but  found  it  difficult  at  his  advanced  age  and 
gave  it  up.  One  day  he  noticed  a  httle  stream  of  water 
which,  trickling  down,  had  worn  a  course  in  the  rock.  He 
said  to  himself,  "  Perseverance  can  accomplish  great  things." 
He  tried  again,  and  in  time  became  a  good  reader.  Though 
he  always  continued  to  work  at  his  trade,  he  became  an  elder, 
a  teacher  in  the  Sabbath-school,  and  an  exhorter  of  considerable 
power.  His  shop  was  a  place  of  testimony  for  the  Saviour. 
At  his  funeral  his  Testament  was  shown,  which  he  had  read 


314  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

through  twenty-five  times.  He  was  a  hberal  man  and  yearly 
supported  two  girls  in  the  seminary.  He  lived  next  door  to 
the  Catholic  Mission,  the  authorities  of  which  offered  him  a 
large  price  for  his  property ;  but  he  left  it  by  will  to  the  gos- 
pel work.  It  was  fitted  up  as  a  house  of  worship,  and  about 
the  same  time  a  company  of  Roman  Cathohcs  left  that  church 
and  with  some  Protestants  formed  a  congregation.  Other  con- 
verts have  shown  a  like  genuine  spirit  of  liberality.  A  man 
in  Charbash  built  a  manse  for  the  congregation,  while  a  pas- 
tor left  a  legacy  to  the  Board  equal  to  two  years'  salary. 

In  steadfastness,  too,  these  converts,  when  put  to  the  test, 
have  not  been  found  wanting.  Of  one  of  these,  Shedd  nar- 
rates :  "  A  girl  of  fourteen  years,  whose  name  was  Hatoon,  had 
learned  to  read  of  and  love  her  Saviour,  and,  with  other  girls 
of  her  village,  had  formed  a  praying  missionary  band.  She 
had  a  very  bad  motlier,  who  had  given  two  of  her  daughters  to 
Mussulman  husbands,  and  they  have,  in  consequence,  denied 
their  faith.  She  resolved  to  do  the  same  with  this  daughter. 
One  morning,  at  family  prayers,  the  village  pastor  heard  a 
great  disturbance  in  the  street,  and,  going  out,  found  the 
mother  and  some  Mussulmans  trying  to  compel  Hatoon  to  go 
with  them.  He  rescued  her;  but  soon  officers  came,  and  she 
was  carried  before  the  prince  governor.  Here  she  was  con- 
fined for  four  days,  with  access  to  no  Christian,  but  only  to 
her  mother,  and  with  every  means  used  to  induce  her  to  con- 
sent to  be  a  Mussulman.  The  Christians  of  her  village  gath- 
ered efi  tnasse  and  demanded  possession  of  the  girl,  or  that  she 
be  released.  The  governor  called  her  to  his  presence,  and  per- 
mitted no  one  but  her  mother  to  be  near.  He  allowed  Sha- 
masha  Eleya  and  two  others  to  be  in  the  yard  and  in  sight. 
He  then  tried  to  induce  her  to  yield,  but  said  he  would  not 
use  force.  She  gave  the  most  decided  testimony — would  not 
give  up  Christ ;  would  give  up  her  mother,  her  property,  every- 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  315 

thing,  but  Christ  never!  The  prince  had  to  confess  that  she 
was  a  Christian.  Then  her  mother  tried  to  have  her  put  again 
into  her  power,  but  she  once  more  said  that  she  would  not 
deny  her  Saviour.  She  could  not  stay  with  her  mother,  but 
fled  and  seized  the  skirts  of  her  pastor,  Shamasha  Eleya,  She 
is  now  with  our  school-girls." 

These  are  but  stray  instances  of  the  power  of  the  gospel 
among  the  Nestorians.  The  results  of  mission  work  among 
them  cannot  now  be  enlarged  upon.  Any  one  who  will  com- 
pare the  material,  social,  intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual  con- 
dition of  these  people  with  what  it  was  sixty  years  ago,  and 
is  aware  of  the  large  part  the  American  Mission  has  had  in 
bringing  about  this  amelioration,  will  find  reason  to  pronounce 
the  work  blessed. 

Protestant  mission  work  among  the  Armenians  of  Persia 
was  begun  about  twenty-five  years  ago.  It  encountered  the 
prejudices  and  the  hatred  which  had  arisen  against  such  work 
in  Turkey,  in  addition  to  a  newly  aroused  persecuting  spirit, 
which  had  largely  spent  itself  there  some  decades  before. 
These  difficulties  cannot  be  detailed.  But  notwithstanding 
the  hindrances  of  priestly  opposition,  together  with  the  skep- 
tical tendencies,  the  worldliness,  and  the  race  prejudices  that 
prevail,  substantial  progress,  it  will  be  seen,  has  been  made  in 
enlightening  the  Armenians  in  Urumia,  Tabriz,  Salmas,  Hama- 
dan,  and  Ispahan.  Converts  have  been  made  and  chiurches 
organized.  At  Ispahan  there  is  a  prosperous  congregation  of 
three  hundred.  At  Hamadan  gospel  truth  has  nearly  leavened 
the  Armenian  community.  Services  are  no  longer  held  in  the 
old  Gregorian  church,  which  is  crumbling  to  pieces.  All  chil- 
dren of  school  age  are  now  in  the  mission  schools.  Evangel- 
ical truth  has  had  a  vital  influence  upon  the  Armenians  through- 
out Persia,  even  upon  those  who  have  remained  Gregorians. 
The  acceptance  of  Reform  doctrines  is  much  wider  than  the 


316  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

profession  of  Protestantism.  The  missions,  too,  have  spurred 
the  Armenians  to  open  up  good  schools,  and  to  improve  their 
condition  in  various  ways. 

One  of  the  Armenian  converts  lately  met  a  tragic  death. 
He  was  a  merchant  in  Urumia,  named  Aga  Jan  Khan,  with 
a  rank  among  the  nobility,  and  was  married  to  one  of  a 
Georgian  family  in  the  shah's  service,  whose  chief  representa- 
tive now  is  Persian  minister  to  France.  His  wife  had  been  a 
Catholic  and  he  a  Gregorian ;  both  had  joined  the  evangelical 
communion.  His  store  was  frequently  the  place  of  religious 
discussions,  especially  among  Mohammedans,  and  because  of 
this  he  was  hated  by  the  mollas.  His  apparent  prosperity  also 
excited  envy.  His  enemies  determined  to  accomphsh  his  de- 
struction, and  laid  a  plot  to  effect  this.  One  morning,  about 
ten  o'clock,  a  Mohammedan  woman  entered  his  store,  where 
some  men  also  were  present.  She  had  been  negotiating  with 
him  about  the  sale  of  a  certain  piece  of  land,  on  which  he  had 
advanced  a  small  sum.  They  failed  to  strike  a  bargain,  and 
she  left  the  store.  A  sayid  rapidly  spread  the  report  that  she 
had  gone  there  for  evil  purposes.  This  report  was  given  out 
in  the  Juma  mosque  and  an  attack  was  ordered.  Immedi- 
ately an  infuriated  rabble  of  sayids,  mollas,  and  looties  rushed 
upon  Aga  Jan,  threw  him  out  in  the  street,  kicked  and  beat  him, 
and  dragged  him  through  the  streets.  He  was  taken  to  the 
mosque.  The  chief  molla,  fearing  he  would  be  killed,  put 
him  in  the  place  of  refuge  and  baired  the  door.  He  then  said 
to  him,  "You  are  charged  with  adultery  with  a  Mohammedan 
woman ;  whether  true  or  false,  you  can  save  yourself  only  by 
turning  Mohammedan."  He  refused,  and  promised  the  molla 
five  hundred  dollars  if  he  would  save  him.  The  molla  said, 
"  No  ;  say  the  creed  or  they  will  kill  you! "  Aga  Jan  fell  on 
his  knees  for  a  moment  of  prayer,  while  the  mob,  which  now 
filled  all  the  courts  and  roofs  and  adjoining  streets,  was  rag- 
ing in  fury  for  his  blood.     Finally  they  broke  down  the  door 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  317 

and  dragged  him  out.  After  again  oflfering  him  his  Hfe  if  he 
would  deny  his  faith  they  thrust  him  through  with  thirty  dag- 
ger wounds,  and  cursed  his  religion,  while  he  ejaculated,  "  Eloi, 
Eloi,  lama  sabachthani?  "  A  rope  was  then  tied  around  his 
neck,  and  his  body,  naked  and  beaten  beyond  recognition,  was 
dragged  through  the  streets  and  flung  into  a  cesspool,  and  a 
dead  dog  thrown  in  beside  him. 

Great  fear  fell  upon  all  the  Christians,  and  several  other 
murders  occurred.  Afterward  the  shah's  government  paid  an 
indemnity  and  granted  a  pension  to  the  widow  and  orphans, 
with  a  title  of  nobility  to  the  eldest  son,  in  recognition  of  Aga 
Jan  Khan's  innocence,  and  as  a  reparation  for  the  negligence  of 
the  government  of  Urumia  in  not  rescuing  him  from  the  mob. 

Mission  work  among  the  Jews  is  nominally  permitted  by  the 
government,  but  often  the  local  authorities  hinder  its  prosecu- 
tion. Something  has  been  done  for  their  evangelization  in 
Hamadan,  Teheran,  Urumia,  Ispahan,  and  in  the  outstations 
of  Tabriz  and  Salmas.  A  church  of  converts  from  Judaism 
has  been  organized  in  Hamadan,  Much  persecution  has  been 
endured  by  them.  Of  their  present  condition  Mr.  Hawkes  re- 
ports in  1895  :  "Among  the  Jews  here  there  is  now  a  remark- 
able spirit  of  inquiry.  It  seemed  to  begin  with  a  prominent 
Jewish  doctor,  who  has  been  very  friendly  with  Dr.  Holmes 
from  the  day  of  his  arrival,  and  has  worked  with  him  profes- 
sionally. Dr.  Holmes  utilized  some  of  the  opportunities  which 
these  occasions  presented  to  ask  him  several  pertinent  ques- 
tions about  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  which  led  him  to 
think  about  and  investigate  them,  until  he  seems  very  near  to 
the  acceptance  of  Christ  as  his  Saviour.  His  thoughtfulness 
has  been  contagious,  especially  among  his  relatives  and  profes- 
sional friends,  and  for  several  weeks  quite  a  number  of  them 
have  met  the  missionaries  and  Jewish  Christians  to  discuss  the 
claims  of  the  Messiah.  These  discussions  have  been  carried 
on  largely  in  a  spirit  of  fairness  quite  unusual  in  my  experience, 


318  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

and  they  have  always  resulted  in  the  acceptance  of  the  Chris- 
tian interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament  passages  under  dis- 
cussion. The  spirit  of  inquiry  is  becoming  general,  and  the 
hand  of  God  is  evidently  in  the  movement. 

"  It  is  too  soon  to  look  for  results,  or  to  prophesy  whereunto 
this  will  grow ;  but  it  is  already  evident  that  those  who  have 
for  a  long  time  been  convinced  of  the  truth  of  Christianity,  and 
have  understood  their  duty,  but  have  not  had  the  courage  to 
come  out  and  make  an  open  profession,  are  taking  advantage 
of  this  movement  to  openly  acknowledge  Christ  and  thus  re- 
lieve their  consciences.  This  is  especially  true  of  several  pres- 
ent and  former  pupils  of  the  boys'  school. 

"  Again,  it  is  evident  that  the  enforced  acceptance  of  Islam 
by  some,  against  their  better  judgment,  which  was  accomplished 
by  the  IMullah  Abdullah  movement,  is  now  reacting  against  a 
more  general  acceptance  thereof,  and  is  driving  them,  happily, 
to  Christ." 

This  is  encouraging  testimony,  and  must  be  grateful  to  the 
well-wishers  of  missions  in  the  Orient,  as  it  is  grateful  to  the 
workers  and  toilers  in  the  field.  Other  signs  are  not  wanting 
to  attest  the  value  of  missionary  labor  in  Persia  and  the  faith- 
fulness of  the  ministering  work. 

Summarizing  the  results  of  Protestant  missions  in  Persia, 
there  is  first  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  with  two  stations, 
four  ordained,  two  medical,  and  six  female  missionaries,  and 
two  churches,  with  one  hundred  and  thirty  communicants. 
It  is  presided  over  by  Bishop  Stuart,  formerly  Bishop  of  New 
Zealand,  who  resigned  that  post  to  devote  himself  to  work  in 
Persia.  A  new  station  is  projected  at  Yezd,  where  there  are 
seven  thousand  Parsees  and  some  hundreds  of  Jews  in  a  large 
Mohammedan  population. 

The  American  Presbyterian  Mission  has  five  stations, 
eleven  ordained,  nine  medical,  one  industrial,  and  thirty-eight 
female  missionaries,  thirty-eight  churches,  with  twenty-eight 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  319 

hundred  and  thirty-eight  communicants,*  organized  in  three 
Presbyteries,  with  Boards  of  Missions,  of  Education,  and  of 
Jurisprudence. 

There  is  also  a  congregation  of  Lutherans  in  Urumia,  with 
other  scattered  communicants.  The  total  number  of  Protes- 
tants in  Persia  is  over  three  thousand  communicants  and  about 
ten  thousand  adherents. 

It  is  a  trite  criticism  on  missions  to  say  that  they  do  not 
pay.  The  Hon.  George  N.  Curzon,  in  "  Persia  and  the  Per- 
sian Question,"  in  speaking  of  the  work  of  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society  at  Ispahan,  says,  "  Here,  as  in  many  parts  of  the 
East,  the  results  do  not,  in  my  opinion,  justify  the  expenditure 
both  of  labor  and  of  money."  It  must  be  admitted  that  mis- 
sion work  in  Persia  is  very  difficult  and  encounters  many  ob- 
stacles, but  the  friends  of  missions  have  no  reason  to  fear  a 
comparison  of  missionary  with  commercial  enterprise,  as  re- 
gards either  economy  or  success.  The  missionaries  may  appear 
from  a  native  standard  to  hve  in  comfort  and  to  have  high  sal- 
aries, but  they  are  on  the  lowest  scale  paid  to  foreigners.  The 
English  artisans  of  the  Mining  Corporation  had  larger  incomes 
than  the  missionaries.  The  manager  of  the  branch  of  the 
Imperial  Bank  at  Tabriz  refused  to  continue  his  engagement, 
though  he  was  receiving  a  salary  equal  to  the  expenditures  of 
a  whole  mission  station. 

As  to  the  results  of  the  commercial  enterprises,  the  conces- 

*  The  progress  of  the  Mission  is  seen  in  the  following  table : 

1873      1893 

Churches 8  36 

Congregations 7°         ^^9 

Ordained  natives 22  55 

Other  preachers 38  66 

Received  during  year 53        294 

Communicants 7^7     2, 716 

Attendants  (average)  2,402     6,628 

Sabbath-school  scholars 5>440 


320  PERSIAN  LIFE  AND   CUSTOMS 

sions  for  roads,  railways,  and  artesian  wells  acquired  and  found 
unprofitable,  merchant  companies  formed  and  dissolved,  news- 
papers started  and  suspended,  army  drillers  employed  and  dis- 
missed, reforms  projected  and  dying  still-born,  show  that  the 
promoters  of  civilization  as  distinct  from  religion  have  no  rea- 
son to  cast  stones  at  the  promoters  of  Christianity. 

While  rejoicing  in  the  success  of  the  telegraph,  the  banks, 
and  everything  that  tends  to  progress,  the  missionary  enterprise 
can  show  a  good  record  of  work  accomplished.  Thousands  of 
children  have  been  educated,  orphans  cared  for,  trades  taught, 
the  famished  fed,  the  oppressed  reheved,  the  sick  ministered 
unto,  and  reHgious  liberty  and  rights  promoted.  A  knowledge 
of  Reformed  Christianity  has  been  inculcated,  resulting  in  an 
increased  esteem  for  it,  even  among  those  who  do  not  accept 
it ;  a  permanent  basis  of  an  evangelical  literature  has  been  laid 
in  the  translations  of  the  Bible  and  religious  books  ;  an  impulse 
has  been  given  to  the  Oriental  churches  to  effect  internal  re- 
forms ;  and  an  aggressive  evangelical  community  has  been  es- 
tabhshed.  Of  those  who  have  taken  part  in  this  varied  and 
beneficent  work,  or  have  been  the  recipients  of  its  benefits, 
a  goodly  number  have  departed  to  join  the  glorious  company 
of  the  redeemed.  These  benefits  to  the  bodies,  minds,  and 
souls  of  people  in  Persia  are  above  money  value  and  cannot 
be  measured  by  any  mere  commercial  standard. 

In  Persia,  when  a  fountain  is  to  be  opened,  men  go  up  into 
a  valley,  and  with  pick  and  shovel,  bucket  and  windlass,  put 
down  wells  and  excavate  underground  channels,  that  the 
water  may  flow  over  the  plains  below.  From  the  chcsma  or 
eye  of  this  fountain  a  copious  stream  bursts  forth,  and  soon 
there  appears  a  scene  of  verdure — fertile  fields,  fruitful  gardens 
and  vineyards,  and  willows  and  poplars  by  the  watercourses. 
Wherever  the  stream  goes  it  manifests  its  fructifying,  beauti- 
fying, purifying,  refreshing,  vivifying  power,  making  what  the 
Persians  call  a.fardia — a  veritable  paradise. 


MODERN  MISSIONS  IN  PERSIA  321 

So  a  fountain  was  opened  in  Jerusalem  for  sin  and  for  un- 
cleanness.  Of  old  its  streams  flowed  over  these  Eastern  lands, 
making  them  a  garden  of  the  Lord  in  spiritual  beauty.  But 
the  channels  became  filled  up  with  superstitions,  errors,  and 
evil  practices,  and  the  Oriental  churches  withered  and  decayed. 
Now  the  servants  of  the  Master-Husbandman  are  at  work  re- 
moving the  debris,  that  the  waters  of  hfe  may  again  overflow 
the  waste  places  and  reach  even  to  new  Mohammedan  fields, 
and  the  parched  ground  become  a  pool,  and  the  thirsty  land 
streams  of  water. 

Already  in  different  parts  of  Persia  we  see  little  spiritual 
oases.  In  the  plains  of  Urumia  and  Salmas,  among  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan,  through  which  Xenophon  led  his  re- 
treating ten  thousand,  along  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  by  the 
ruins  of  ancient  Nineveh,  at  Hamadan,  hard  by  the  tomb  of 
Esther  and  Mordecai,  and  in  the  cities  of  Tabriz,  Teheran,  and 
I.spahan,  we  see  the  beginnings  and  look  soon  for  the  abun- 
dant fruits  of  Christian  living. 

As  the  streams  become  more  copious  and  are  led  here  and 
there  over  the  land,  "  the  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  shall 
be  made  glad,  and  the  desert  shall  rejoice  and  blossom  as  the 
rose." 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX   I 

HISTORY   OF   TABRIZ 

The  founding  of  Tabriz  is  lost  in  antiquity.  It  has  sometimes  been 
mistaken  for  the  ancient  Gaza,  Ganzaca,  or  the  northern  Ecbatana.  It 
probably  received  its  name  from  Khosrau  I.  of  Armenia,  who,  to  re- 
venge the  death  of  his  brother,  attacked  and  defeated  Ardashir,  the  first 
of  the  Sassanian  dynasty,  A.D.  246,  and  changed  the  name  of  the  city  from 
Shahistan  to  Ta-vrezh  ("  this  revenge  ") — Tauris.  It  was  retaken  by 
Shapur,  but  was  given  by  Galerius  to  Tiridates,  with  the  province  of 
Atropatene  (Armenian,  Aderbadagan ;  Persian,  Azerbijan),  after  their 
successful  war  against  Narsi.  Tiridates  made  Tauris  (Tabriz)  his  capital 
and  beautified  it.  (Malcolm,  i.,  83.)  Arshag  Tiranus,  of  Armenia,  as- 
sisted by  the  Huns  and  Alans,  invaded  Azerbijan  A.D.  363,  and  defeated 
Shapur  near  Tabriz.  (Gibbon,  ii.  472.)  Under  the  Sassanians  it  continued 
to  be  an  important  city. 

A  Persian  legend  says  that,  in  the  time  of  the  caliphs,  Zubaidah,  the  wife 
of  Haroun-il-Raschid,  was  advised  to  travel  for  her  health,  and  reaching 
this  site,  recovered,  and  then  founded  a  city,  which  she  named  Tabriz  on 
account  of  the  salubrity  of  the  climate.  Tab-riz  in  Persian  signifies 
"  Fever-scatterer."  The  queen  is  said  to  have  summoned  Satah  from 
Damascus  to  determine  astrologically  a  fortunate  time  for  founding  a  city. 
It  is  probable  that  she  simply  beautified  and  enlarged  it.  One  of  the 
fountains  of  the  city  is  now  called  by  her  name.  Others  derive  the  name 
Tabriz  from  the  Sanskrit  tab,  warm,  and  riz,  to  flow,  from  the  warm 
springs  in  the  neighboring  mountain.  There  are  none  nearer  than  twenty 
miles.  In  858  much  destruction  was  wrought  by  a  great  earthquake,  and 
Caliph  Motavakkil  rebuilt  the  city.  In  1041  forty  thousand  people  perished 
from  the  same  cause.     The  warning  of  Abou  Tahir,   an  astrologer  of 

323 


324  APPENDIX 

Shiraz,  who  was  at  Tabriz,  enabled  many  to  escape.  He  also  foretold 
that  there  would  be  no  more  earthquakes  for  three  hundred  years. 
("  Mirror  of  Cities,"  in  Persian.)  After  the  time  of  the  Seljuks  Tabriz 
was  for  a  brief  period  the  capital  of  an  independent  principality,  under  the 
Ata  Begs  of  the  Ilij-Guz  family,  whose  power  was  overthrown  by  the  sultan 
of  Khiva.  As  the  capital  of  the  Mongols  Tabriz  enjoyed  a  few  decades 
of  great  prosperity.  Abaka  Khan  erected  in  it  great  buildings.  The 
bazaars  in  the  time  of  Ghazan  Khan  (1295-1303)  were  said  to  make  the 
eyes  swim.  Finely  dressed  youths  attracted  customers  by  their  beauty  of 
manner.  The  jewelry  displayed  was  superb.  Ghazan  Khan,  called  Sham 
(Syria)  from  his  attempted  conquest  of  Syria,  built  a  combined  palace, 
school,  and  sepulchral  monument,  greater,  according  to  Hamd-Ullah, 
than  any  building  in  Persia.  The  ruins  are  now  called  Sham  Ghazan, 
consisting  of  cellars  and  mounds  in  the  suburb,  Hukmabad.  Many  of 
the  arches  are  being  excavated,  and  the  materials  used  for  new  buildings, 
and  the  debris  appropriated  as  fertilizers.  Blue  tiles  can  be  picked  up  in 
the  ruins  or  obtained  from  the  gardeners.  The  wall  of  the  Mongol  city 
was  thirty-five  feet  wide  and  fifteen  thousand  or  twenty-five  thousand 
paces  in  length,  with  five  main  gates  and  eight  smaller  ones.  Charanduab, 
Sarkhab,  and  Beylan  Kuh  are  within  the  walls.  The  population  is  said 
to  have  been  five  hundred  thousand.  The  mound  of  the  wall  can  yet  be 
traced  to  the  south  of  the  city.  Sham  Ghazan's  vizier  built  the  Rub-i- 
Rashidiah,  which,  though  repaired  by  Shah  Abbas,  is  now  a  shapeless 
mound  in  Bagh-Meshed.  The  extent  of  Mongol  influence  may  be  seen  in 
the  fact  that  Abaka  Khan  married  a  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Michael 
Palseologus,  and  his  successor  married  the  daughter  of  the  emperor  of 
China.  Envoys  from  the  pope  visited  their  capital.  A  letter  is  extant 
from  Edward  I.  of  England  to  Ghazan  Khan. 

We  are  informed  by  a  native  historian  that  in  1370  three  hundred  thou- 
sand died  in  Tabriz  of  the  cholera;  in  1384  Shah  Shuja  Muzaffari  con- 
quered it  and  spent  four  months  in  it ;  shortly  afterward  it  was  taken  and 
sacked  by  Tamerlane ;  yet  in  1405  it  had  recovered  and  had  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants.  During  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  ruled  by  the 
Turkomans  of  the  Black  and  White  Sheep  tribes.  Of  the  former's 
dominions  it  was  the  capital.  Kara  Yosef  improved  the  city.  Jehan 
Shah,  who  was  tributary  to  the  Tartar  shah,  built  the  Blue  Mosque. 

Tabriz  was  favored  as  the  seat  of  royalty  by  Shah  Ismael,  the  founder 
of  the  Safavian  dynasty.  When  Ispahan  became  his  capital  the  beglar- 
begis  governed  Tabriz.  The  interest  of  this  period  (i  500-1 750)  in  the 
story  of  Tabriz  centers  around  the  contests  between  the  Osmanli  sultans 
and  the  Persians  for  the  possession  of  Azerbijan.     Here  was  the  scene  of 


APPENDIX  325 

a  long-fought  and  bloody  contest  of  Sunni  against  Shiah,  in  which  it  was 
considered  more  meritorious  to  kill  one  Shiah  than  to  have  killed  seventy- 
Christians.  Ismael,  the  holy  sheik  of  the  Persians,  was  called  by  the 
Turks  the  "  slave  of  the  devil."  Selim  I.  defeated  Shah  Ismael  at  Khoi, 
took  Tabriz,  and  sent  away  Armenian  and  Mussulman  artisans  to  Con- 
stantinople. Sultan  Suleiman  besieged  Tabriz,  forced  it  to  surrender,  but 
soon  abandoned  it.  Osman  Pasha  again  took  it,  and  the  Osmanlis  held  it 
for  eighteen  years,  until  driven  out  by  Shah  Abbas.  Some  say  that  he 
sent  five  hundred  soldiers  into  the  city  dressed  as  merchants,  who  seized 
the  fort  and  prepared  for  his  attack.  After  his  death  Murad  Sultan  cap- 
tured the  city,  but  again  retreated.  A  terrible  earthquake  in  1725  de- 
stroyed a  great  part  of  the  city  and  caused  the  death  of  eighty  thousand 
people.  Three  years  afterward,  though  without  walls  or  cannon,  the 
Persians  destroyed  an  army  of  twenty-four  thousand  under  the  pasha  of 
Van.  When  the  sultan  sent  a  greater  army  against  them,  they  removed 
their  women  and  children  to  Ghilan,  and  waged  a  bloody  contest  for  days, 
in  which  thirty  thousand  men  perished,  and  the  remainder  capitulated  on 
condition  of  being  allowed  to  retire  to  Ardebil.  Tabriz  was  left  without 
an  inhabitant.  (Malcolm,  i.,  458.)  By  an  agreement  between  Turkey  and 
Russia,  northern  Persia  was  to  be  divided  between  them,  and  Azerbijan 
was  about  to  become  a  fixed  part  of  the  Turkish  empire,  when  the  magic 
prowess  of  Nadir  Shah  turned  the  tide  of  fortune  and  it  became  again 
Persian,  and  Persian,  except  during  the  Russian  occupation  of  1829,  it 
has  remained.  But  Tabriz's  misfortunes  were  not  yet  at  an  end.  In 
1780  another  earthquake  ruined  fifteen  thousand  houses  and  killed  forty 
thousand  people.  During  the  period  of  confusion  following  Nadir  Shah, 
Tabriz  was  ruled  independently  by  the  Dumbli  khans,  until  the  time  of 
the  Kajars,  under  whom  this  family  have  generally  held  the  post  of  beglar- 
begi  or  mayor.  The  wall,  three  and  a  half  miles  long,  around  the  old  city, 
with  the  moat,  was  erected  by  the  Dumbli  khans.  The  eight  gates  are 
still  the  landmarks  of  the  city.  The  Stamboul  gate,  with  its  blue  tile 
pillars  and  ornamental  decorations,  is  a  handsome  structure.  It  has  a 
memorial  stone  with  the  name  of  Najef  Guli  Khan. 


326 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX  II 


CALENDAR   OF    THE    PERSIAN   YEAR 


Month  Date  Event 

Muharram  i.  Beginning  of  mourning. 

lo.  Ashura,  the  martyrdom  of  Imam  Husain. 

12.  Death  of  Imam  Zain-il-Abidin,  A.H.  no. 

-  Safar  l.  Battle  between  Ali  and  Muavia. 

3.  Birth  of  Imam  Mohammed-Baghir. 

6.  Birth  of  Nazir-i-Din,  Shah,  A.H.  1247. 

7.  Birth  of  Imam  Musa-Kazim. 

17.  Martyrdom  of  Imam  Reza.* 
Rabi-il-Avvel           5.  Birth  of  Imam  Husain.* 

8.  Death  of  Imam  Hasan-Askari. 

12.  Birth  of  Mohammed. 

14.  Abubekr  becomes  caliph,  A.H.  11. 

15.  Death  of  Yezid. 

Rabi-il-Akhir  4.  Birth  of  Imam  Hasan-Askari,  A.H.  232, 

Jamadi-il-Avvel       4.  Death  of  Imam  Hasan,  A.H.  49. 

15.  Birth  of  Imam  Zain-il-Abidin,  A.H.  38. 

Jamadi-il-Akhir       3.  Death  of  Fatima,  a.h.  ii.* 

20.  Birth  of  Fatima.* 

Rajab  i.  Birth  of  Imam  Mohammed-Baghir.* 

2.  Birth  of  Ali  Nagi. 

13.  Birth  of  Ali. 

27.  Maraj  (journey  of  Mohammed  to  heaven). 

Shaban  3.  Birth  of  Imam  Husain.* 

I  Birth  of  Fatima.* 
(  Birth  of  Mohammed  Ibn  Hasan. 

Ramadan  I.  Month  of  fasting. 

2.  Death  of  Fatima.* 

15.  Births  of  Imam  Hasan  and  Imam  Mohammed-Tagi. 

18.  Smiting  of  Ali. 

21.  Death  of  Ali. 

24.  Martyrdom  of  Imam  Reza.* 

27.  Execution  of  Ibn  Mulzam. 

*  Some  events  are  assigned  two  dates,  according  to  different  traditions. 


APPENDIX 


327 


Shavval 


Zilgada 
Zil  Haja 


I.  Fitr  or  Uruch  Bairam. 

4.  Disappearance  of  twelfth  imam,  A.H.  265. 

12.  Smiting  of  the  moon  by  Mohammed. 
25.  Martyrdom  of  Imam  Jafar-Sadik. 
II.  Birth  of  Imam  Reza. 

10.  Kurban  Bairam. 

13.  Accession  of  Ali  to  the  caliphate. 

18.  Mohammed  declares  Ali  his  successor. 

25.  Feast  of  Khatam  Bakhsh. 

26.  Death  of  Omar. 


APPENDIX  III 


MONETARY     SYSTEM 


Table  of  Denar  System 
5  denars  =  i  gazbeh 


20     ' 

'       =  I  bisti 

30    ' 

'       =  I  tanbal 

50    • 

'       =  I  shahi 

100     ' 

'       =  I  yuzaltun 

200      ' 

'       r=  I  abbasi 

500     ' 

'       =  I  penabad 

1,000     ' 

'       =  I  kran 

1,250    ' 

'       =  I  real 

10,000     ' 

'       =  I  toman 

The  origin  of  these  names  is  as  follows :  denar  is  from  the  Latin 
denarius  (a  penny)  ;  shahi  from  shah-king;  abbasi  from  a  coin  struck  by 
Shah  Abbas  at  Tiflis ;  penabad  from  a  coin  struck  at  Shushan,  which  city 
is  called  also  Pena-abad,  from  Pena  Khan ;  kran  is,  in  full,  sahib-kran 
("  lord  of  a  generation"),  and  was  first  struck  by  a  shah  to  commemo- 
rate the  thirtieth  year  of  his  reign ;  real  is  from  a  Spanish  coin  of  a  like 
value ;  toman  means  ten  thousand,  and  was  used  for  a  division  of  the  old 
Tartar  army,  and  is  retained  in  the  title  Amir-i-Toman. 


328 


APPENDIX 


WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES 


Table  of  Weights 

4  grains      =  I  nokhud 
6  nokhuds  =  I  dang 
4  dangs      =  i  miskal 
640  miskals  =  i  sagat  batman 


800    ' 

'         =  I  meeskar  " 

20 

1,000      ' 

'          =  I  rasta        "     (Tabriz) 

25 

1,280    ' 

'          =  I  batman-i-shah 

2,560      ' 

'          =  I  rh6  batman 

3,200    ' 

'          =  I  Urumia  batman 

100     ' 

'         =  I  kharvar 

Urumia  Weights 

100  miskals    =  i  dirham 

4  dirhams    =  I  hefta 

8  heftas       =  i  batman 

10  batmans  =  I  load 

=  I  dewan  load 

=  I  bazaar  load 


The  unit  of  length  is  the  arshin  (Tabriz),  dry  (Urumia),  or  zar  (Tehe- 
ran). It  is  44  inches  in  the  former  and  42^  inches  in  the  two  latter  places. 
The  farsakh  (parasang)  or  agach  is  6000  arshins.  For  land  measure  the 
term  "  batman"  is  also  used  in  Tabriz.  There  are  three  kinds,  called 
the  yuzaltun,  eke-shahi-yarum,  and  bir-abbasi  batmans,  which  contain  re- 
spectively 100,  125,  and  200  square  arshins.  The  second  is  commonly 
used. 


NDEX 


Abbott,  Consul-General,    109,    112, 

116,  123,  182. 
Abduction  of  girl  convert  by  Kurds, 

104. 
Afghan  War,  the,  174. 
Afshar,  district  of,  160. 
Ahasuerus,  Hill  of,  157. 
Ajab  Shahr,  75. 
Akstafa,  valley  of,  40. 
Alabaster  quarries,  74. 
Ali-Allahis,  among  the,  88,  2 19,  234, 

239 ;  rites  of,  241 ;  sacred  books 

of,  241. 
Ali  Khan,  Sheik,  120. 
AH  Shah,  83. 
Almsgiving,  faith  in,  214. 
Alogos,  Mount,  42. 
Alwand,  157,  164. 
Amusements,  254. 
Anderson's     "  Oriental    Missions  " 

quoted,  78. 
Arab  gamins,  56  ;  Arab  culture,  169. 
Ararat,  Mount,  31,  42,  100,  164. 
Aras  River,  49,  83. 
Ardebil,  139,  164. 
Ark,  the,  on  Mount  Ararat,  46. 
Armenian  cemetery,   48 ;   churches, 

73  ;   village  life,  127. 
Armenians,  the,  79,  85,  90,  94,  100, 

112,  125,  127,  226,  302. 
Army  appointments  auctioned,  182  ; 

army  strength,  184. 
Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  quoted,  41. 
Astrology,  a  flourishing  science,  222, 

223. 
Aylauts,  the,  133,  135. 
Azerbijan,  52,  71,  112;  governor  of, 

in  league  with  thieves,  137. 


Babs  or  Babis,  the,  62,  146,  185, 
221. 

Baku,  219. 

Banking,  289. 

Baranduz,  97. 

Barrenness,  prayers  to  relieve,  219. 

Bath-houses,  a  social  resort,  253. 

Batum,  25. 

Bazaars,  Persian,  48,  192,  199,  204, 
225. 

Bejar,  159. 

Benjamin,  Ex-Minister,  12,  16,  124, 
169,  300. 

Black  Sea,  coasting  the,  17. 

Border  disputes,  99. 

Bryce's  "  Transcaucasia  and  Ara- 
rat," 44. 

Building-operations,  285. 

Business  life  in  Persia,  278;  barter- 
ing, 279;  outfit,  284. 

Carpet-weaving,  129. 

Caste,  non-existent  in  Persia,  181, 

Cattle-stealing,  134. 

Charms  and  talismans,  belief  in,  220. 

Cheese-making,  129. 

Cholera  plague,  159,  323. 

Christians,  massacre  of,  II5. 

Civil  and  religious  authorities,  need 

of  defining  powers  of,  186. 
Civil  service,  education  for,  188. 
Clean   and   unclean   meats,   law   of, 

225.  _ 
Coal-mining  at  Teheran,  177. 
Cochran,  Rev.  J.  G.,  M.D.,  82,  109, 

114,  117. 
Commercial    enterprises,     stagnant 

state  of,  15. 


329 


330 


INDEX 


Concubinage,    demoralizing    effects 
of,  229,  262. 

Conjugal  relations,  257. 
Conscience,  prickings  of,  232. 
Converts,  Christian,  312. 
Corner  in  bread,  a,  180. 
Cossacks,  bivouac  of,  39. 
Cotton-crop,  166. 
Criminal  punishment,  184. 
Crown  jewels  (Persian),  150. 
Cufic  inscriptions,  89,  154. 
Currency,  the,  283,  289,  326. 
Cursing,  a  public  nuisance,  229. 
Curzon,    Hon.   George  F.,   12,  62, 

187,  319. 
Cylinder,  Babylonian,  96. 

Damavand  Mountains,  164. 
Dash-Tapa,    rock   and   inscriptions 

on,  105. 
Dates,  growth  of,  166. 
Deceit  in  bargaining,  231. 
Defilement,  religious,  226,  227. 
Degala,  95. 
Dervishes,  205. 
Dilman,  91. 

Diplomatic  relations,  122,  174. 
Divination,  223. 
Divorce,  265. 
Domestic  life,  269. 
Dreams  and  visions,  belief  in,  218. 
Dress  of  Armenian  men  and  women, 

128,  269. 
Drunkenness  in  a  Christian,  303. 
Ducargan,  72,  108. 

Earthquakes    in    Persia,    168,    224, 

324- 
Ecbatana,  the  ancient,  156. 
Education,  popular,  187. 
Elburz  Mountains,  22,  154,  164. 
English  official  aid  to  missions,  305. 
Erivan,  43. 
Eunuchs,  employment  of,  255- 

Family  life,  243. 
Famine  in  Persia,  168. 
Farming  operations,  272,  274- 
Fasting  as  a  religious  observance, 

215. 
Fasts  and  feasts  of  the  Shiahs,  189. 


Fath  Ali  Shah,  10,  146;  death  of, 
176;  favorite  wife  of,  181;  and 
the  wearing  of  beards,  183. 

Fees,  officials  live  upon,  180. 

P'ireworks,  display  of,  at  national 
festival,  196,  246. 

Fire- worshipers,  153,  303. 

Fiske  Seminary,  Urumia,  223. 

Flagellation  frenzy,  191. 

Foreign  trade,  287. 

Funeral  customs,  210. 

Gambling,  prevalence  of,  229. 

Ganj-Nama,  the,  158. 

Gardner,  Mr.  (consul  at  Poti),  24. 

Gavlan,  91. 

Geogtapa,  95. 

Geological  features,  73. 

Georgia,  31. 

Goigan,  72. 

Goktcha,  Lake,  40,  43. 

Gori,  29. 

Greetings,  208,  271. 

Hadji  Baba,  the  water-carrier,  181, 

Haftdewan,  91. 

Hamadan,  city  of,  156;  inscriptions, 
158;   tombs,  158. 

Haroun-al-Raschid,  154,  244,  322. 

Horam  Dara,  147. 

Horses,  Arabian,  71. 

Husain,  martyrdom  of,  190;  mourn- 
ing for,  190. 

Indo-European      Telegraph     Com- 
pany, 175. 
Internal  improvements,  need  of,  179. 
International  Postal  Union,  175. 
Irrigation,  153;   need  of,  179,  275. 
Islam,  strength  of,  142,  302. 

Jagatai  River,  107,  163. 
Julfa,  39,  49,  175. 

Kajar  dynasty,  the,  149,  168,  324. 
Karadagh    Mountains,    125 ;   region 
of,  126,  137;  Armenians  of,  131. 
Kasvin,  142,  148,  190. 
Kerbela,  219. 
Kermanshah,  100. 
Khoi,  82,  85. 


INDEX 


331 


Khorassan,  II2. 

Khosrova,  91. 

Koflan  Kuh,  143. 

Koran,  the,  63,  120,  187,  199,  205, 

207,  209,  228,  241. 
Kura  River  and  Valley,  32,  38. 
Kurdish    raid,    the,    94,    107,    109; 

village  life,  102,  121 ;  mountains, 

119. 
Kurdistan,  97,  119,  154,  164. 
Kurds,  the,  47,  74,  76,  86,  89,  100, 

102,  115. 

Lala  Beg,  the  robber,  221. 

Landlords  of  Karadagh,  rapacity  of, 
130;   village  landlords,  273. 

Land-tenure,  need  of  change  in, 
179. 

Languages  taught  (Persian  and  Ara- 
bic), 187. 

Lazarists  (French),  91,  94. 

Lepers,  the,  140. 

Livadia,  19. 

Lizards,  144. 

Lokman,  the  fabulist,  148. 

Maku,  85,  86,  88. 

Malcolm,  Sir  John,  146. 

Maragha,  71,  76. 

Marend,  51. 

Marriage  question,  the,  261. 

Martyn,  Henry,  49,  169,  298,  309. 

Mechanical   arts,    development    of, 

177. 
Medes,  ancient  capital  of,  160. 
Medical  schools,  188;  operations  of, 

310- 

Memorial  Training  and  Theological 
School,  13. 

Miana,  142. 

Mianduab,  93,  105,  303. 

Military  review  at  Tabriz,  183,  246. 

Mining  enterprises,  162,  167,  289. 

Mint,  the,  at  Teheran,  153,  283. 

Miracles,  belief  in,  219. 

Missionaries  (American)  wrongly 
accused  of  complicity  with  Kurd- 
ish raid,  122. 

Missions  in  jeopardy,  116,  315; 
modern,  in  Persia,  298;  ritualis- 
tic Anglican,  300. 


Mithridates,  Hill  of,  19. 

Mohammedan  Sabbath,  208. 

Mohammedans,  49,  177,  212. 

Mohammedans  and  Christians,  con- 
tact between,  a  defilement,  226. 

Mollas,  the  (priests),  117,  177,  187, 
190,  195,  203,  209. 

Monetary  system,  282,  289,  326. 

Mongols,  seat  of,  in  Persia,  71. 

Morals  low  in  Persia,  229. 

Moravians,  298. 

Mosques  of  Tabriz,  63,  65  ;  of  Mi- 
ana,  142  ;  of  Teheran,  209. 

Mountain  tribes,  vigor  of,  167. 

Mourning  for  Husain,  the  martyr, 
191. 

Mujtehids,  the,  79,  112,  187,  195, 
204. 

Mules  and  Mussulman  prayers,  138. 

Municipal  life,  66. 

Mussulman  superstition,  84. 

Mussulmans,  the,  91. 

Nakhejevan,  47. 

Naphtha-springs  at  Bushire,  167. 
Nasir-i-Din,  the  astronomer,  77. 
Nestorians,   the,    78,   81,   94,    116, 

299,  302. 
New   Testament,    the,    in    Persian, 

137.  309- 
New-Year  festivities,  237,  243. 
Newspapers,  Persian,  178. 
Noah,  tomb  of,  48. 
Nobility,  titled,  181. 
Nomad  attack  on  the  author,  136. 
Nomads,  Kurdish,  their  family  life, 

106,  134. 
Noruz,  festival  of,    133,    189,   236, 

243,  247. 
Novoroshisk,  21. 

Oaths,  false,  fear  of,  230. 
Official  corruption  rampant,  179. 
Oil-trade  (Russian),  26. 
Omens  and  signs,  belief  in,  222. 
Osmanlis,  the,  1 19. 

Passports,  37. 

Peach-crop,  166. 

"  People  of  the  Book,  the,"  225. 

Perkins,  Judith,  92. 


332 


INDEX 


Persia,  condition  and  needs  of,  164; 
economical  resources  of,  166;  in- 
fluence of  famine  and  earthquakes 
in  retarding  population,  168;  art 
and  civilization,  169;  greetings 
and  religious  salutations  in,  208 ; 
inhabitants  of,  a  social  people, 
243 ;  manner  of  living  in,  250 ; 
Protestant  missions  in,  298. 

Persian  year,  calendar  of,  189,  325. 

Pilgrimages,  religious,  216. 

Pillage  of  Christian  villages,  II5. 

Pirs,  219,  235. 

Police  of  Tabriz,  67. 

Political  reforms,  need  of,  179. 

Polygamy  rare,  242  ;  does  not  lack 
defenders,  263. 

Porter,  Sir  Ker,  quoted,  165,  178, 
212. 

Post-roads,  148. 

Poti,  22,  24. 

Prayers,  written,  charm  of,  212,  219. 

Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions, 13,  299 ;  missionaries  in 
Persia,  91,  318,  319. 

Presents,  prevalent  custom  of  giv- 
ing, 254. 

Press  censorship,  178. 

Priesthood  in  Persia,  conservative 
character  of,  187. 

Proselytism,  302,  308. 

Punishments,  criminal,  184. 

Railway  transport,  176,  179. 

Raisin-trade,  the,  79. 

Ramadan,  fast  of,  197,  244. 

Receptions,  official,  247. 

Religious  life  and  morals,  202. 

Resht,  154. 

Rhe,  the  site  of  the  ancient  Rhages, 

153- 
Rion  River,  28. 
Ritual  at  burials,  209. 
Royal  college,  Teheran,  151,  177. 
Russian  railways,  28. 

Sacrifices,   132,  200. 
Sahend,  Mount,  72,  93,  164. 
Sal  mas,  51,  89. 
Salutations,  208,  271. 
Savalan  Peak,  164. 


Sayids,  order  of  the,  205,  218,  221, 
316. 

Sebastopol,  18. 

Seir,  Mount,  92. 

Shah,  the,  court  state  when  travel- 
ing, 169;  ability  as  a  ruler,  174. 

Shahsevan  robber  girl,  a,  136. 

Sheik  Obeidullah,  no,  113,  121. 

Shiahs,  the,  63,  115,  219;  sacred 
year  of,  189;  population  of,  202; 
beliefs  of,  202. 

Shiblee  Pass,  139. 

Shrines,  pilgrim,  218. 

Silk-crop,  the,  130. 

Silver  filigree-work,  145. 

Sinecures,  irresponsible,  182. 

Slavery  discountenanced,  174. 

Social  life,  243. 

Sofian,  51. 

Soldiers,  dress  of,  183. 

Soujbulak,  99,  120. 

Spectacles,  mistaken  for  a  badge  of 
Christianity,  303. 

Streets  in  Persian  cities,  condition 
of,  68. 

Sulduz,  98. 

Sultanieh,  146. 

Sunnis,  the,  no,  115,  219. 

Suram  Mountains,  29. 

Sweetmeats,  use  of,  249. 

Tabriz,  52 ;  bazaars  of,  60 ;  history 
of,  322. 

Takht-i-Suleiman,  156,  160. 

Talismans,  220. 

Talmudic  Jews,  35. 

Tartars,  the,  13,  7,:^,  168. 

Tstavu,  107,  in. 

Tea-houses,  252. 

Teheran,  the  Persian  capital,  138 ; 
center  of  political  intrigues,  I4; 
American  charge  d'affatres  at, 
1 24 ;  royal  college  of,  151;  pop- 
MJation  of,  149,  178;  tramways 
in,  177. 

Telegraphs    and    telegraph  system, 

31.  175.  176. 
Thielmann,  Baron,  25,  62. 
"  Throne  of  Solomon,"  160. 
Tiflis,  visit  to,  31  ;  sacking  of,  34. 
J  Time-reckoning,  189. 


W  Ub<  C.  cl  fm 


INDEX 


333 


Titles  purchasable,  i8i ;  need  of,  in 
the  absence  of  a  family  name,  i8l. 

Tobacco  Corporation,  Imperial,  290; 
agitation  respecting,  292. 

Tortupe  penalty,  186. 

Transcaucasian  Railway,  28. 

Trebizond,  82. 

Turkomanchai,  142. 

Turks  and  Persians,  enmity  be- 
tween, 201. 

Tyler,  Professor  John,  of  the  royal 
college,  Teheran,  151. 

United  States,  the,  and  Persia,  122. 
Urumia,  city  of,  94;  American  Mis- 
sion at,  95  ;   shrine  at,  218. 
Urumia,  Lake,  circuit  of,  52,  64,  81. 
Ushmuk,  98. 

Vali  Ahd,  the  crown  prince,  63,  88, 

171,  190,  195. 
Village   fight,    a,    131  ;   village   life, 

268  ;  peasant  population,  268. 


Water-pipes  (for  smoking  purposes), 

253- 

Water-supply  of  cities,  69. 

Weddings,  royal,  1 72 ;  domestic, 
customs  at,  238. 

Weights  and  measures,  table  of,  326. 

Whipple,  Rev.  W.  L.,  in  peril,  117. 

Wife-beating,  prevalency  of,  229, 
257,  258;  subjection  of  wife,  257. 

Women's  attire,  259,  260 ;  street 
costume  of,  256 ;  occupations, 
259;  seclusion,  255;  delight  in 
bedecking  themselves,  260;  de- 
vout Mohammedans,  267. 

Wool-carding,  129. 

Yenikale,  Strait  of,  19. 

Zagros,  64,  144,  164. 
Zenjan,  the  capital  of  Khamseh,  142, 
145,  219. 


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*•*  See  also  Pen  and  Pencil  Series,  By-Paths  of  Bible  ICnowleagt, 

«  and  Missions. 


